LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 

ROSARIO  CURLETTI 


PINNOCK'S  IMPROVED  EDITION 

op 
DR.  GOLDSMITH'S  ABRIDGMENT 

OF    THE 

HISTORY  OF    ROME: 

TO   WHICH   IS   PREFIXED   AN 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  ROMAN 
HISTORY, 

AND 

A    GREAT    VARIETY    OF    VALUABLE    INFORMATION    ADDED    THROUGHOUT 
THE    WORK,    ON    THE 

MANNERS,  INSTITUTIONS,  AND  ANTIQUITIES 
OF  THE  ROMANS; 

WITH 

NUMEROUS    BIOGRAPHICAL    AND    HISTORICAL    NOTESj 
AND 

QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION 

AT   THE   END   OF   EACH    SECTION. 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH    THIRTY    ENGRAVINGS   ON    WOOD    DY    ATHBRTCH. 


TOtST  AMERICAN,  CORRECTED  J.f>'n  REVISED,   FROM  THX 
TWELFTH  EffOLBH  EDITION. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

THOMAS,  CO  \\TERTH  WAIT,  &  CO. 
1845. 


ENTERED  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1835,  by 

KEY  <fc  RIDDLE, 

lr  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

PRINTED   BY  KING  &  BAIRD, 

No.  Q  George  street. 


PREFACE. 


THE  researches  of  Niebuhr  and  several  other 
distinguished  German  scholars  have  thrown  a 
new  light  on  Roman  History,  and  enabled  us 
to  discover  the  true  constitution  of  that  republic 
which  once  ruled  the  destinies  of  the  known 
world,  and  the  influence  of  whose  literature 
and  laws  is  still  powerful  in  every  civilized 
state,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be  felt  to 
the  remotest  posterity.  These  discoveries  have, 
however,  been  hitherto  useless  to  junior  stu- 
dents in  this  country ;  the  works  of  the  German 
critics  being  unsuited  to  the  purposes  of  schools, 
not  only  from  their  price,  but  also  from  the 
extensive  learning  requisite  to  follow  them 
through  their  laborious  disquisitions.  The 
editor  has,  therefore,  thought  that  it  would  be 
no  unacceptable  service,  to  prefix  a  few  Intro- 
ductory Chapters,  detailing  such  results  from 
their  inquiries  as  best  elucidate  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  Roman  people,  and  explain 


4  PREFACE. 

the  most  important  portion  of  the  history.  The 
struggles  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians, 
respecting  the  agrarian  laws  have  been  so 
strangely  misrepresented,  even  by  some  of  the 
best  historians,  that  the  nature  of  the  contest 
may.  with  truth,  be  said  to  have  been  wholly 
misunderstood  before  the  publication  of  Nie- 
buhr's  work:  a  perfect  explanation  of  these 
important  matters  cannot  be  expected  in  a 
work  of  this  kind ;  the  Editors  trust  that  the 
brief  account  given  here  of  the  Roman  tenure 
of  land,  and  the  nature  of  the  agrarian  laws, 
will  be  found  sufficient  for  all  practical  pur 
poses.  After  all  the  researches  that  have  been 
made,  the  true  origin  of  the  Latin  people,  and 
even  of  the  Roman  city,  is  involved  in  impene- 
trable obscurity;  the  legendary  traditions  col- 
lected by  the  historians  are,  however,  the  best 
guides  that  we  can  now  follow ;  but  it  would 
be  absurd  to  bestow  implicit  credit  on  all  the 
accounts  they  have  given,  and  the  editor  has, 
therefore,  pointed  out  the  uncertain  nature  ot 
the  early  history,  not  to  encourage  scepticism, 
but  to  accustom  students  to  consider  the 
nature  of  historical  evidence,  and  thus  early 
form  the  useful  habit  of  criticising  and  weigh- 
ing testimony. 


PREFACE.  0 

The  authorities  followed  in  the  geographical 
chapters,  are  principally  Heeren  and  Cramer ; 
the  treatise  of  the  latter  on  ancient  Italy  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  aids  acquired  by  historical 
students  within  the  present  century.  Much 
important  information  respecting  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  Roman  religion  has  been 
derived  from  Mr.  Keightley's  excellent  Treatise 
on  Mythology ;  the  only  writer  who  has,  in  our 
language,  hitherto,  explained  the  difference  be- 
tween the  religious  systems  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  The  account  of  the  barbarians  in  the 
conclusion  of  the  volume,  is,  for  the  most  part, 
extracted  from  "Koch's  Revolutions  of  Eu- 
rope;" the  sources  of  the  notes,  scattered 
through  the  volume,  are  too  varied  for  a  distinct 
acknowledgment  of  each. 


A2 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  I.  Geographical  Outline  of  Italy PAG»    ;J 

II.  The  Latin  Language  and  People — Credibility  of 

the  Early  History -8 

III.  Topography  of  Rome 23 

IV.  The  Roman  Constitution 30 

V.  The  Roman  Tenure  of  Land — Colonial  Govern- 
ment    37 

VI.  The  Roman  Religion 39 

VII.  The  Roman  Army  and  Navy 43 

VIII.  Roman  Law. — Finance 51 

IX.  The  public  Amusements  and  private  Life  of  the 

Romans 65 

X.  Geography  of  the  empire  at  the  time  of  its  greatest 

extent 59 

HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I.  Of  the  Origin  of  the  Romans PAGE  63 

II.  From  the  building  of  Rome  to  the  death  of  Ro- 
mulus    66 

IIT.  From  the  death  of  Romulus  to  the  death  of  Numa  7 1 

IV.  From  the  death  of  Numa  to  the  death  of  Tullus 

Hostilius 73 

V.  From  the  death  of  Tullus  Hostilius  to  the  death 

Ancus  Martius 75 

VI.  From  the  death  of  Ancus  Martius  to  the  death  of 

Tarquinius  Priscus 77 

VII.  Fro7n    the   death  of  Tarquinius  Priscus  to  the 

death  of  Servius  Tullius 80 

VIII.  From  the  death  of  Servius  Tullius  to  the  banish- 
ment of  Tarquinius  Superbus 83 

IX.  From  the  banishment  of  Tarquinius  Superbus  to 

the  appointment  of  the  first  Dictator 88 

X.  From  the  Creation  of  the  Dictator  to  the  election 

of  the  Tribunes 93 

,  XI.  From  the  Creation  of  the  Tribunes  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Decemviri,  viz. 

,          Section  1 . — The  great  Volscian  war 96 

2. — Civil  commotions  on  account  of  the 

Agrarian  law 101 

XII.  From  the   creation  of  the  Decemviri  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  city  by  the  Gauls,  viz. 

Section  \. — Tyranny  of  the  Decemviri 106 

2. — Crimes  of  Appius — Revolt  of  the  army         110 

7 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHIPTKR  XII.  Section  3.-  -Election   of    Military   Tribunes — 

Creation  of  the  Censorship  ...   11 

4. — Siege  and  capture  of  Veil — Inva- 
sion of  the  Gauls 

5. — Deli  verance  of  Rome  from  the  Gauls         125 

XIII.  From  the  wars  with  the  Sammies  to  the  First 

Punic  war,  viz. 

Section  1. — The  Latin  war 131 

2. — Invasion  of  Italy  by  Pyrrhus,  king 

of  Epirus 135       , 

3. — Defeat  and  departure  of  Pyrrhus. .          140 

XIV.  From  the  beginning  of  the  First  Punic  war  to 

the  beginning  of  the  Second,  viz. 
Section  1. — Causes  and  commencement  of  the 

war — Invasion  of  Africa  by  Regulus 144 

2. — Death  of  Regulus — Final  Triumph 

of  the  Romans 148 

XV.  The  Second  Punic  war,  viz. 

Section  1. — Commencement  of  the  war — Han- 
nibal's invasion  of  Italy 150 

2. — Victorious  career  of  Hannibal 154 

3.  — Retrieval  of  the  Roman  affairs — In- 
vasion of  Africa   by  Scipio — Conclusion  of 

the  war 159 

XVI.  Macedonian,  Syrian,  Third  Punic,  and  Spanish 

wars 163 

XVII.  From  the  Destruction  of  Carthage  to  the  end  of 
the  Sedition  of  the  Gracchi,  viz. 

Section  1. — Murder  of  Tiberius  Gracchus 168 

2. — Slaughter  of  Caius  Gracchus  and 

his  adherents 172 

XVIII.  From  the  Sedition  of  Gracchus  to  the  perpetual 

Dictatorship  of  Sylla,  viz, 
Section  I. — The  Jugurthine  and  Social  wars. .          176 

2. — The  cruel  massacres  perpetrated  by 

Man  us  and  Sylla 181 

XIX.  From  the  perpetual  Dictatorship  of  Sylla  to  the 

first  Triumvirate 186 

XX.  From  the  First  Triumvirate  to  the  death  of  Pom- 

pey,  viz. 

Section  1 . — C.Tsar's  wars  in  Gaul — Commence- 
ment of  the  Civil  war 192 

2. — Caesar's  victorious  career 197 

3. — The   campaign    in   Thessaly   and 

Epirus 202 

4.— The  liatlle  of  Pharsalia 206 

5.— Death  of  Pompey 210 

XXI.  From  the  Destruction  of  the  Commonwealth  to 

the  establishment  of  the  first  Emperor,  Au- 
gustus, viz. 

Section  1. — Caesar's  Egyptian  campaign 216 

•  2. — The  African  campaign 22' 


CONTEXTS.  9 

CHAPTEH  XXI.  Section  3.— Death  of  Cjrsnr PASS  22G 

4. — The  Second  Triumvirate 232 

5.— The  Battle  of  Philippi 237 

G. — Dissensions  of  Antony  and  Au- 
gustus    242 

7.— The  Battle  of  Actium 247 

8. — The  Conquest  of  Egypt 253 


XXII.  From  the  accession  of  Augustus  to  the  death 

of  Domitian,  viz. 
Secti'in  1. — The  beneficent  Administration  of 

Augustus 260 

2. — Death  of  Augustus 265 

3. — The  reign  of  Tiberius — Death  of- 

Germanicus 269 

4. — Death  of  Sejanus  and  Tiberius — 

Accession  of  Caligula 274 

— —  5. — Extravagant  cruelties  of  Caligula 

—His  death 279 

6.— The  Reign  of  Claudius 283 

7.— The  reign  of  Nero 289 

8. — Death  of  Nero — Reigns  of  Gulba 


and  Otho 293 

9. — The  reigns  of  Vitellius  and   Ves- 


pasian— The  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. .         298 

10. — The  Reigns  of  Titus  and  Domitian         303 

11. — The  assassination  of  Domitian..         308 


XXIII.  The  Five  good  emperors  of  Rome,  viz. 

Section  1. — The  Reigns  of  Nerva  and  Trajan         312 

2.— The  Reign  of  Adrian 317 

3. — The  Reign  of  Antoninus  Pius. . .         321 

4. — The  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius. . .          326 

XXIV.  From  the  accession  of  Commodus  to  the  change 

of  the  scat  of  Government,  from  Rome  to 
Constantinople,  viz. 
Section  1. — The  Reigns  of  Commodus,  Pcrti- 

nax,  and  Didius 329 

p    2. — The  Reigns  of  Severus,  Caracalla, 

Maximus,  and  Heliogabalus 333 

3. — The  reigns  of  Alexander,  Maxi- 


inin,  and  Gordian 338 

4. — The    Reigns   of   Philip,    Decius, 

Gallus,  Valerian,  Claudius,  Aurelian,  Taci- 
tus, and  Probus 342 

5. — The   reigns   of  Cams,    Carinus, 

Dioclesian,  and  Constantius — Accession  of 

Constantino 346 

G. — The  reign  of  Constantino 351 


XXV.  From  the  death  of  Constantino,  to  the  reunion 
of  the  Roman  empire  under  Theodosius  the 
Great,  viz. 
Section  1 . — The  Reign  of  Constantius 462 


10  CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  XXV.  Section  2. — The  Reigns  of  Julian,  Jovian,  the 

Valentinians,  and  Theodosius 472 

XXVI.  From  the  death  of  Theodosius  to  the  subver- 

sion of  the  Western  Empire,  viz. 

Section  1. — The  division  of  the  Roman  do- 
minions into  the  Eastern  and  Western  em- 
pires    481 

2. — Decline  and  fall  of  the  Western 

empire 488 

XXVII.  Historical  notices  of  the  different  barbarous 

tribes  that  aided  in  overthrowing  the  Roman 

empire 497 

XX  VIII.  The  progress  of  Christianity 605 

Cnronologica.  Index 391 


HISTORY  OF  ROME. 

INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  OUTLINE   OF  ITALY. 

1.  THE  outline  of  Italy  presents  a  geographical  unity  and 
completeness  which  naturally  would  lead  us  to  believe  that 
it  was  regarded  as  a  whole,  and  named  as  a  single  country, 
from  the  earliest  ages.  This  opinion  would,  however,  be 
erroueous  ;  while  the  country  was  possessed  by  various 
independent  tribes  of  varied  origin  and  different  customs, 
the  districts  inhabited  by  each  were  reckoned  separate 
states,  and  it  was  not  until  these  several  nations  had  fallen 
under  the  power  of  one  predominant  people  that  the  physi- 
cal unity  which  the  peninsula  possesses  was  expressed  by 
a  single  name.  Italy  was  the  name  originally  given  to  a 
small  peninsula  in  Brut'tium,  between  the  Scylacean  and 
Napetine  gulfs ;  the  name  was  gradually  made  to  compre- 
hend new  districts,  until  at  length  it  included  the  entire 
country  lying  south  of  the  Alps,  between  the  Adriatic  and 
Tuscan  seas.  2.  The  names  Hesperia,  Saturnia,  and 
(Enot'ria  have  also  been  given  to  this  country  by  the  poets; 
but  these  designations  are  not  properly  applicable;  for  Hes- 
peria was  a  general  name  for  all  the  countries  lying  to  the 
west  of  Greece,  and  the  other  two  names  really  belonged  to 
particular  districts. 

3.  The  northern  boundary  of  Italy,  in  its  full  extent,  is 
the  chain  of  the  Alps,  which  forms  a  kind  of  crescent,  with 
the  convex  side  towards  Gaul.  The  various  branches  of 
these  mountains  had  distinct  names ;  the  most  remarkable 
were,  the  Maritime  Alps,  extending  from  the  Ligurian  sea 
to  Mount  Vesulus,  Veso  ;  the  Collian,  Graian,  Penine, 
Rhoetian,  Tridentine,  Carnic,  and  Julian  Alps,  which  nearly 
complete  the  crescent;  the  Euganean,  Venetian,  and  Pan- 
nonian  Alps,  that  extend  the  chain  to  the  east. 

II 


1'J  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

4.  The  political  divisions  of  Italy  have  been  frequently 
altered,  but  it  may  be  considered  as  naturally  divided  into 
Northern,  Central,  and  Southern  Italy. 

The  principal  divisions  of  Northern  Italy  were  Ligu'ria 
and  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

5.  Only  one  half  of  Liguria  was  accounted  part  of  Italy  ; 
the  remainder  was  included  in  Gaul.    The  Ligurians  origin- 
ally possessed  the  entire  line  of  sea-coast  from  the  Pyrennees 
to  the  Tiber,  and  the  mountainous  district  now  called  Pied- 
mont  ;    but  before  the  historic  age  a  great  part  of  their 
territory  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Iberians,  the  Celts, 
and  the  Tuscans,  until  their  limits  were  contracted  nearly 
to  those  of  the  present  district  attached  to  Genoa.     Their 
chief  cities  were  Gem'ia,  Genoa;  Nicoe'a,  Nice,  founded  by 
a  colony  from  Marseilles ;  and  As'ta,  Jlsti.     The  Ligurians 
were  one  of  the  last  Italian  states  conquered  by  the  Romans ; 
on  account  of  their  inveterate  hostility,  they  are  grossly 
maligned  by  the  historians  of  the  victorious  people,  and 
described  as  ignorant,  treacherous,  and  deceitful ;   but  the 
Greek  writers  have  given  a  different  and  more  impartial 
account;  they  assure  us  that  the  Ligurians  were  eminent 
for  boldness  and  dexterity,  and  at  the  same  time  patient  and 
contented. 

6.  Cisalpine  Gaul  extended  from  Liguria  to  the  Adriatic 
or  Upper  Sea,  and  nearly  coincides  with  Jhe  modern  district 
of  Lombardy.     The  country  is  a  continuous  plain  divided 
by  the  Pa'dus,  Po,  into   two  parts ;   the  northern,  Gallia 
Transpada'na,  was  inhabited  by  the  tribes  of  the  Tauri'ni, 
In'subres,  and  Cenoma'nni ;  the  southern,  Gallia  Cispada'- 
na,  was  possessed  by  the  Boi'i,  Leno'nes,  and  Lingo'nes. 
7.  These  plains  were  originally  inhabited  by  a  portion  of 
the  Etrurian  or  Tuscan  nation,  once  the  most  powerful  in 
Italy ;   but  at  an  uncertain  period   a  vast  horde  of  Celtic 
Gauls  forced  the  passage  of  the  Alps  and  spread  themselves 
over  the  country,  which  thence  received  their  name.     8.  It 
was  sometimes  called  Gallia  Toga'ta,  because  the  invaders 
conformed  to  Italian  customs,  and  wore  the  toga.    Cisalpine 
Gaul  was  not  accounted  part  of  Italy  in  the  republican  age ; 
its  southern  boundary,  the  river  Rubicon,  being  esteemed 
by  the  Romans  the  limit  of  their  domestic  empire. 

9.  The  river  Pa'dus  and  its  tributary  streams  fertilized 
these  rich  plains.  The  principal  rivers  falling  into  the 
Padus  were,  from  the  north,  the  Du'ria,  Durance ;  the 
Tici'nus,  Tessino;  the  Ad'dua,  Adda;  the  Ol'lius,  Ogliot 


GEOGRAPHICAL   OUTLINE    OF    ITALY/  13 

and  the  Min'tius,  Minzio  :  nom  the  south,  the  Ta'narus, 
Tanaro,  and  the  Tre'bia.  The  Ath'esis,  Jidige;  the  Pla'vis, 
Paive;  fall  directly  into  the  Adriatic. 

10.  The  principal  cities  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  were  Roman 
colonies  with  municipal  rights ;  many  of  them  have  pre- 
served their  names  unchanged  to  the  present  day.  The  most 
remarkable  were ;  north  of  the  Pa'dus,  Terge'ste,  Trieste; 
Aquilei'a;  Pajta'vium,  Padua;  Vincen'tia,  Vero'na,  all  east 
of  the  Athe'sis:  Man'tua;  Cremo'na;  Brix'ia,  Brescia; 
Mediola'num,  Milan;  Tici'num,  Pavia;  and  Augusta  Tu- 
rino'rum,  Turin;  all  west  of  the  Athe'sis.  South  of  the  Po 
we  find  Raven'na;  Bono'nia,  Bologna;  Muti'na,  Modena; 
Par'ma,  and  Placen'tia.  11.  From  the  time  that  Rome  was 
burned  by  the  Gauls  (B.C.  390),  the  Romans  were  harassed 
by  the  hostilities  of  this  warlike  people ;  and  it  was  not 
until  after  the  first  Panic  war,  that  any  vigorous  efforts  were 
made  for  their  subjugation.  The  Cisalpihe  Gauls,  after  a 
fierce  resistance,  were  overthrown  by  Marcell'us  (B.C.  223) 
and  compelled  to  submit,  and  immediately  afterwards  military 
colonies  were  sent  out  as  garrisons  to  the  most  favourable 
situations  in  their  country.  The  Gauls  zealously  supported 
An'nibal  when  he  invaded  Italy,  and  were  severely  punished 
when  the  Romans  finally  became  victorious. 

12.  North-east  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  at  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  Adriatic,  lay  the  territory  of  the  Venetians ;   they 
were  a  rich  and  unwarlike  people,  and  submitted  to  the 
Romans  without  a  struggle,  long  before  northern  Italy  had 
been  annexed  to  the  dominions  of  the  republic. 

13.  Central  Italy  comprises  six  countries,  Etru'ria,  La'- 
tium,  and  Campa'nia  on  the  west;  Um'bria,  Pice'num,  and 
JSam'nium,  on  the  east. 

14.  Etru'ria,  called   also  Tus'cia  (whence  the  modern 
name  Tuscany)  and  Tyrrhe'nia,  was  an  extensive  mountain- 
ous district,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river  Mac'ra,  and 
on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Tiber.     The  chain  of  the 
Apennines,  which  intersects  middle  and  Lower  Italy,  com- 
mences in  the  north  of  Etru'ria.     The  chief  river  is  the 
Ar'nup,  Jlrno.     15.  The  names  Etruscan  and  Tyrrhenian, 
indifferently   applied   to    the    inhabitants   of    this   country, 
originally  belonged  to  different  tribes,  which,  before  the 
historic  age,  coalesced  into  one    people.     The  Etruscana 
appear  to  have  been  Celts  who  descended  from  the  Alps; 
the  Tyrrhenians  were  undoubtedly  a  part  of  the  Pelas'gi 
who  originally  possessed  the  south-east  of  Europe.     The 

B 


14  HISTORY   OF    ROME — INTRODUCTICW 

circumstances  of  the  Pelasgic  migration  are  differently 
related  by  the  several  historians,  but  the  fact  is  asserted  by 
all.*  These  Tyrrhenians  brought  with  them  the  knowledge 
of  letters  and  the  arts,  and  the  united  people  attained  a 
high  degree  of  power  and  civilization,  long  before  the  name 
of  Rome  was  known  beyond  the  precincts  of  Latium.  They 
possessed  a  strong  naval  force,  which  was  chiefly  employed 
in  piratical  expeditions,  and  they  claimed  the  sovereignty 
of  the  western  seas.  The  first  sea-fight  recorded  in  history 
was  fought  between  the  fugitive  Phocians,t  and  the  allied 
fleets  of  the  Tyrrhenians  and  the  Carthaginians  (B.C.  539.) 
16  To  commerce  and  navigation  the  Etruscans  were 
indebted  for  their  opulence  and  consequent  magnificence ; 
their  destruction  was  owing  to  the  defects  of  their  political 
system.  There  were  twelve  Tuscan  cities  united  in  a 
federative  alliance.  Between  the  Mac'ra  and  Arnus  were, 
Pi' sx,  Pisa;  Floren'tia,  Florence;  and  Fae'sulae:  between 
the  Arnus  and  the  Tiber,  Volate'rrae,  Volterra;  Volsin'ii, 
Bolsena;  Clu'sium,  Chiusi;  Arre'tium,  Arrezzo ;  Corto'- 
na ;  Peru'sia,  Perugia,  (near  which  is  the  Thrasamene 
lake) ;  Fale'rii,  and  Ve'ii.  17.  Each  of  these  cities  was 
ruled  by  a  chief  magistrate  called  lu'cumo,  chosen  for  life  ; 
he  possessed  regal  power,  and  is  frequently  called  a  king  by 
the  Roman  historians.  In  enterprises  undertaken  by  the 
whole  body,  the  supreme  command  was  committed  to  one 
of  the  twelve  lucumones,  and  he  received  a  lictor  from  each 
city.  But  from  the  time  that  Roman  history  begins  to 
assume  a  regular  form,  the  Tuscan  cities  stand  isolated, 
uniting  only  transiently  and  casually ;  we  do  not,  however, 
find  any  traces  of  intestine  wars  between  the  several  states. 

18.  The  Etrurian  form  of  government  was  aristocratical, 
and  the  condition  of  the  people  appears  to  have  been  miser- 
able in  the  extreme ;  they  were  treated  as  slaves  destitute 
of  political  rights,  and  compelled  to  labour  solely  for  the 
benefit  of  their  taskmasters.     A  revolution  at  a  late  period 
took  place  at  Volsin'ii,  and  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the 
nobility  abolished  after  a  fierce  and  bloody  struggle ;  it  is 
remarkable  that  this  town,  in  which  the  people  had  obtained 
their  rights,  alone  made  an  obstinate  resistance  to  the  Romans. 

19.  The  progress  of  the  Tuscans  in  the  fine  arts  is  attested 
by  the  monuments  that  still  remain ;  but  of  their  literature 

*  See  Pinnock's  History  of  Greece,  Chap.  I. 
f  See  Historical  Miscellany,  Part  II.  Chap.  I. 


OEOGttAPHICAL   OUTLINE    OF    ITALY.  15 

we  know  nothing ;  their  language  is  unknown,  and  their 
books  have  perished.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  Roman  repub- 
lic, the  children  of  the  nobility  were  sent  to  Etru'ria  for 
education,  especially  in  divination  and  the  art  of  soothsay- 
ing, in  which  the  Tuscans  were  supposed  to  excel.  The 
form  of  the  Roman  constitution,  the  religious  ceremonies, 
and  the  ensigns  of  civil  government,  were  borrowed  from 
the  Etrurians. 

20.  La'tium  originally  extended  along  the  coast  from  the 
Tiber  to  the  promontory  of  Circe'ii ;   hence  that  district 
was  called,  old  La'tium ;  the  part  subsequently  added,  called 
new  La'tium,  extended  from  Circeii  to  the  Li'ris,  Garig- 
liano.     The  people  were  called  Latins  ;  but  eastward,  to- 
wards the  Apennines,  were  the  tribes  of  the  Her'nici,  the 
./E'qui,  the  Mar'si,  and  the  Sabines;  and  on  the  south  were 
the  Vols'ci,  Ru'tuli,  and  Aurun'ci.     The  chief  rivers  in 
this  country  were  the  A'nio,  Teverone ;  and  Al'lia,  which 
fall  into  the  Tiber;  and  the  Liris,  Garigliano;  which  flows 
directly  into  the  Mediterranean. 

21.  The  chief  cities  in  old  Latium  were  ROME;  Ti'bur, 
Tivoli;  Tus'culum,  Frescati;  Al'ba  Lon'ga,  of  which  no 
trace  remains ;  Lavin'ium ;  An'tium  ;  Ga'bii ;   and  Os'tia, 
Civita    Vecchia ;    the  chief  towns  in  new  Latium  were 
Fun'di,  Anx'ur  or  Terraci'na,  Ar'pinum,  Mintur'nae,  and 
For'miae. 

22.  CAMPA'NIA  included  the  fertile  volcanic  plains  that 
lie  between  the  Liris  on  the  north,  and  the  Si'lanus,  Selo, 
on  the  south ;  the  other  most  remarkable  river  was  the  Vol- 
tur'nus,  Volturno.    The  chief  cities  were,  Ca'pua  the  capital, 
Linte/num,  Cu'mae,  Neapo'lis,  Naples  ;  Hercula'neum,  Pom- 
pe  ii,  Surren'tum,  Saler'num,  &c.    The  original  inhabitants 
of  Campa'nia,  were  the  Auso'nes  and  Op'ici  or  Osci,  the  most 
ancient  of  the  native  Italian  tribes.     The  Tyrrhenian  Pe- 
las'gi  made  several  settlements  on  the  coast,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  have  founded  Cap'ua.     The  Etruscans  were  after- 
wards masters  of  the  country,  but  their  dominion  was  of 
brief  duration,  and  left  no  trace  behind.     Campa'nia  was 
subdued  by  the  Romans  after  the  Volscian  war. 

•  23.  The  soil  of  Campa'nia  is  the  most  fruitful,  perhaps, 
in  the  world,  but  it  is  subject  to  earthquakes  and  volcanic 
eruptions.  Mount  Vesu'vius  in  the  early  ages  of  Italy  was 
not  a  volcano ;  its  first  eruption  took  place  A.  D.  79. 

24.  UM'BRIA  extended  along  the  middle  and  east  of  Italy, 
from  the  river  Rubicon  in  the  north,  to  the  ^E'sis,  Gescuio, 


10  HISTORY   OF   ROME — INTRODUCTION. 

dividing  it  from  Pise'num,  and  the  Nar,  Nera,  separating  it 
from  Sam'nium  in  the  south.  The  Umbrians  were  esteem- 
ed one  of  the  most  ancient  races  in  Italy,  and  were  said  to 
have  possessed  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  and  central 
provinces.  They  were  divided  into  several  tribes,  which 
seem  to  have  been  semi-barbarous,  and  they  were  subject  to 
the  Gauls  before  they  were  conquered  by  the  Romans. 
Their  chief  towns  were  Arimi'nium,  Rimini;  Spole'tium, 
Spoleto ;  Nar'nia,  Narni;  and  Ocricu'lum,  Otriculi. 

25.  PICE'NUM  was  the  name  given  to  the  fertile  plain  that 
skirts  the  Adriatic,  between  the  ^E'sis,   Gesano,  and  the 
Atar'nus,  Pescara.     The   chief  cities  were  Anco'na   and 
Asc'ulum   Pice'num,  Ascoli.     The   Picentines   were    de- 
scended from  the  Sabines,  and  observed  the  strict  and  se- 
vere discipline  of  that  warlike  race,  but  they  were  destitute 
of  courage  or  vigour. 

26.  SAM'NIUM   included   the   mountainous   tract  which 
stretches  from  the  Atar'nus  in  the  north,  to  the  Fren'to  in 
the  south.     It  was  inhabited  by  several  tribes  descended 
from  the  Sabines  *  and  Ma'rsi,  of  which  the  Samnites  were 
the  most  distinguished ;   the  other  most  remarkable  septs 
were  the  Marruci'ni  and  Pelig'ni  in  the  north,  the  Fren- 
ta'ni  in  the  east,  and  the  Hirpi'ni  in  the  south.     27.  The 
Samnites  were  distinguished  by  their  love  of  war,  and  their 
unconquerable  attachment  to  liberty  ;  their  sway  at  one  time 
extended  ove     Campa'nia,  and  the  greater  part  of  central 
Italy ;  and  the  Romans  found  them  the  fiercest  and  most 
dangerous  of  their  early  enemies.     The  chief  towns  in  the 
Samnite  territory  were  Alli'fs,  Beneventum,  and  Cau'dium. 

28.  Lower  Italy  was  also  called  Magna  Grae'cia,  from 
the  number  of  Greek t  colonies  that  settled  on  the  coast; 
it  comprised  four  countries  ;  Luca'nia  and  Brut'tium  on  the 
west,  and  Apu'lia  and  Cala'bria  on  the  east. 

29.  LUCA'NIA  was  a  mountainous  country  between  the 
Sil'arus,  Selo,  on  the  north,  and  the  La'us,  Lavo,  on  the 
south.     The  Lucanians  were  of  Sabine   origin,  and  con- 

*  These  colonies,  sent  out  by  the  Sabines,  are  said  to  have  originated 
from  the  observance  of  the  Ver  sacrum  (sacred  spring.')  During  certain 
years,  every  thing  was  vowed  to  the  gods  that  was  born  between  the 
calends  (first  day)  of  March  and  May,  whether  men  or  animals.  At 
first  they  were  sacrificed ;  but  in  later  ages  this  cruel  custom  was  laid 
aside,  and  they  were  sent  out  as  colonists. 

f  The  history  of  these  colonies  is  contained  in  the  Historical  Mis- 
cellany, Part  II.  Chap.  ii. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    OUTLINE    OF    ITALY.  17 

quered  the  (Enotrians,  who  first  possessed  the  country : 
they  also  subdued  several  Greek  cities  on  the  coast.  The 
chief  cities  were  Posido'nia  or  Paestum,  He'lia  or  Ve'lia, 
Sib'aris  and  Thu'rii. 

30.  BRUT'TIUM  is  the  modern  Cala'bria,  and  received  that 
name  when  the  ancient  province  was  wrested  from  the  em- 
pire.    It  included  the  tongue  of  land  from  the  river  Liius  to 
the  southern  extremity  of  Italy  at  Rhe'gium.     The  moun- 
tains of  the   interior  were   inhabited  by  the  Bruta'tes  or 
Brut'tii,  a  semi-barbarous  tribe,  at  first  subject  to  the  Siba- 
rites,  and  afterwards  to  the  Lucanians.     In  a  late  age  they 
asserted  their  independence,  and  maintained  a  vigorous  re- 
sistance to  the  Romans.     As  the  Brut'tii  used  the  Oscan 
language,  they  must  have  been  of  the  Ausonian  race.    The 
chief  towns  were  the  Greek  settlements  on  the  coast,  Con- 
sen'tia,  Cosenza;  Pando'sia,  Cirenza;  Croto'na,  Mame'r- 
tum,  Petil'ia,  and  Rhe'gium,  Reggio. 

31.  APU'LIA  extended  along  the  eastern  coast  from  the 
river  Fren'to,  to  the  eastern  tongue  of  land  which  forms  the 
foot  of  the  boot,  to  which  Italy  has  been  compared.    It  was 
a  very  fruitful  plain,  without  fortresses  or  harbours,  and  was 
particularly  adapted  to  grazing  cattle.     It  was  divided  by 
the  river  Au'tidus,  Ofanto,  into  Apu'lia  Dau'nia,  and  Apu'- 
lia  Peuce'tia,  or  pine-bearing  Apu'lia.     The  chief  towns 
were,  in  Dau'nia,  Sipon'tum  and  Luce'ria:  in  Peuce'tia, 
Ba'rium,  Can'nae,  and  Venu'sia. 

32.  CALA'BRIA,  or  Messa'pia,  is  the  eastern  tongue  of 
land  which  terminates  at  Cape  Japy'gium,  Santa  Maria  ; 
it  was  almost  wholly  occupied  by  Grecian  colonies.     The 
chief  towns  were  Brundu'sium,  Brindisi:  Callipolis,  Gal- 
lipoli :  and  Taren'tum. 

33.  The  islands  of  Sicily,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia,  which 
are  now  reckoned  as  appertaining  to  Italy,  were  by  the  Ro- 
mans considered  separate  provinces. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  is  Italy  situated  1 

2.  By  what  names  was  the  country  known  to  the  ancients  1 

3.  How  is  Italy  bounded  on  the  north  1 

4.  What  districts  were  in  northern  Italy  ? 

5.  What  was  the  extent  of  Liguria,  and  the  character  of  its  in 

habitants  1 

6.  How  \va»  Cisalpine  Gaul  divided  1 

B9 


18  HISTORY   OF    ROME — INTRODUCTION. 

7.  By  whom  was  Cisalpine  Gaul  inhabited  1 

8.  Why  was  it  called  Togata  1 

9.  What  are  the  principal  rivers  in  northern  Italy  ? 

1 0.  What  are  the  chief  cities  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  1 

11.  When  did  the  Romans  subdue  this  district? 

1 2.  Did  the  Venetians  resist  the  Roman  power  ? 

1 3.  What  are  the  chief  divisions  of  central  Italy  ? 

14.  How  is  Etruria  situated? 

15.  By  what  people  was  Etruria  colonized  ? 

1 6.  What  were  the  Tuscan  cities  ? 

1 7.  How  were  the  cities  ruled  ? 

1 8.  What  was  the  general  form  of  Tuscan  government  1 

19.  For  what  were  the  Tuscans  remarkable  ? 

20.  What  was  the  geographical  situation  of  Latium  ? 

21.  What  were  the  chief  towns  in  Latium  ? 

22.  What  towns  and  people  were  in  Campania  ? 
23\  For  what  is  the  soil  of  Campania  remarkable  ? 

24.  What  description  is  given  of  Umbria  ? 

25.  What  towns  and  people  were  in  Picenum  ? 

26.  From  whom  were  the  Samnites  descended  ? 

27.  What  was  the  character  of  this  people? 

28.  How  was  southern  Italy  divided  ? 

29.  What  description  is  given  of  Lucania  ? 

30.  By  what  people  was  Bruttium  inhabited  ? 

3 1 .  What  is  the  geographical  situation  of  Apulia  ? 

32.  What  description  is  given  of  Calabria  1 

33.  What  islands  belong  to  Italy  1 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  PEOPLE. CREDIBILITY  OF 

THE  EARLY  HISTORY. 

THE  Latin  language  contains  two  primary  elements,  the 
first  intimately  connected  with  the  Grecian,  and  the  second 
with  the  Oscan  tongue  ;  to  the  former,  for  the  most  part, 
belong  all  words  expressing  the  arts  and  relations  of  civi- 
lized life ;  to  the  latter,  such  terms  as  express  the  wants  of 
men  before  society  has  been  organized.  We  are  therefore 
warranted  in  conjecturing  that  the  Latin  people  was  a  mixed 
race ;  that  one  of  its  component  parts  came  from  some  Gre- 
cian stock,  and  introduced  the  first  elements  of  civilization, 
ind  that  the  other  j^as  indigenous,  and  borrowed  refinement 
from  the  strangers.  The  traditions  recorded  by  the  histo- 
rians sufficiently  confirm  this  opinion ;  they  unanimously 


THE  LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  PEOPLE.         19 

assert  that  certain  bodies  of  Pelasgi  came  into  the  country 
before  the  historic  age,  and  coalesced  with  the  ancient  in- 
habitants. The  traditions  respecting  these  immigrations 
are  so  varied,  that  it  is  impossible  to  discover  any  of  the 
circumstances  ;  but  there  is  one  so  connected  with  the  early 
history  of  Rome,  that  it  cannot  be  passed  over  without  no- 
tice. All  the  Roman  historians  declare,  that  after  the  de- 
struction of  Troy,  ^Eneas,  «vith  a  body  of  the  fugitives,  arri- 
ved in  Latium,  and  having  married  the  daughter  of  king 
Lati'nus,  succeeded  him  on  the  throne.  It  would  be  easy 
to  show  that  this  narrative  is  so  very  improbable,  as  to  be 
wholly  unworthy  of  credit ;  but  how  are  we  to  account  for 
the  universal  credence  which  it  received  ?  To  decide  this 
question  we  must  discuss  the  credibility  of  the  early  Roman 
history,  a  subject  which  has  of  late  years  attracted  more 
than  ordinary  attention. 

The  first  Roman  historian  of  any  authority,  was  Fa'bius 
Pic'tor,  who  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  second  Punic 
war ;  that  is,  about  five  centuries  and  a  half  after  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city,  and  nearly  a  thousand  years  after  the  de- 
struction of  Troy.  The  materials  from  which  his  narra- 
tive was  compiled,  were  the  legendary  ballads,  which  are 
in  every  country  the  first  record  of  warlike  exploits  ;  the 
calendars  and  annals  kept  by  the  priests,  and  the  documents 
kept  by  noble  families  to  establish  their  genealogy.  Im- 
perfect as  these  materials  must  necessarily  have  been  under 
any  circumstances,  we  must  remember  that  the  city  of  Rome 
was  twice  captured ;  once  by  Porsenna,  and  a  second  time 
by  the  Gauls,  about  a  century  and  a  half  before  Fabius  was 
born.  On  the  latter  occasion  the  city  was  burned  to  the 
ground,  and  the  capitol  saved  only  by  the  payment  of  an 
immense  ransom.  By  such  a  calamity  it  is  manifest  that 
the  most  valuable  documents  must  have  been  dispersed  or 
destroyed,  and  the  part  that  escaped  thrown  into  great  dis- 
order. The  heroic  songs  might  indeed  have  been  preserved 
in  the  memory  of  the  public  reciters ;  but  there  is  little  ne- 
cessity for  proving  that  poetic  historians  would  naturally 
mingle  so  much  fiction  with  truth,  that  few  of  their  asser- 
tions could  be  deemed  authentic. '  The  history  of  the  four 
first  centuries  of  the  Roman  state  is  accordingly  full  of  the 
greatest  inconsistences  and  improbabilities ;  so  much  so, 
that  many  respectable  writers  have  rejected  the  whole  aa 
unworthy  of  credit ;  but  this  is  as  great  an  excess  in  seep 
ticism,  as  the  reception  of  the  whole  would  be  of  credulity 


20  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

But  if  the  founders  of  the  city,  the  date  of  its  erection,  and 
the  circumstances  under  which  its  citizens  were  assembled, 
be  altogether  doubtful,  as  will  subsequently  be  shown, 
assuredly  the  history  of  events  that  occurred  four  centuries 
previous  must  be  involved  in  still  greater  obscurity.  The 
legend  of  ^Eneas,  when  he  first  appears  noticed  as  a  pro- 
genitor of  the  Romans,  differs  materially  from  that  which 
afterwards  prevailed.  Romulus,  in  the  earlier  version  of 
the  story,  is  invariably  described  as  the  son  or  grandson  of 
^Eneas.  He  is  the  grandson  in  the  poems  of  Naevius  and 
Ennius,  who  were  both  nearly  contemporary  with  Fabius 
Pictor.  This  gave  rise  to  an  insuperable  chronological  dif- 
ficulty;  for  Troy  was  destroyed  B.  C.  1184,  and  Rome  was 
not  founded  until  B.  C.  753.  To  remedy  this  incongruity, 
a  list  of  Latin  kings  intervening  between  ^Ene'as  and 
Rom'ulus,  was  invented ;  but  the  forgery  was  so  clumsily 
executed,  that  its  falsehood  is  apparent  on  the  slightest  in- 
spection. It  may  also  be  remarked,  that  the  actions  attri- 
buted to  ./Eneas  are,  in  other  traditions  of  the  same  age  and 
country,  ascribed  to  other  adventurers  ;  to  Evander,  a  Pelas- 
gic  leader  from  Arcadia,  who  is  said  to  have  founded  a  city 
on  the  site  afterwards  occupied  by  Rome ;  or  to  Uly'sses, 
whose  son  Tele'gonus  is  reported  to  have  built  Tus'culum. 
If  then  we  deny  the  historical  truth  of  a  legend  which 
seems  to  have  been  universally  credited  by  the  Romans, 
how  are  we  to  account  for  the  origin  of  the  tale  ?  Was  the 
tradition  of  native  growth,  or  was  it  imported  from  Greece 
when  the  literature  of  that  country  was  introduced  into 
Latium  ?  These  are  questions  that  can  only  be  answered 
by  guess ;  but  perhaps  the  following  theory  may  in  some 
degree  be  found  satisfactory.  We  have  shown  that  tradition, 
from  the  earliest  age,  invariably  asserted  that  Pelasgic  colo- 
nies had  formed  settlements  in  central  Italy ;  nothing  is 
more  notorious  than  the  custom  of  the  Pelasgic  tribes  to 
take  the  name  of  their  general,  or  of  some  town  in  which 
they  had  taken  up  their  temporary  residence  ;  now  JEne'a 
and  JE'nus  were  common  names  of  the  Pelasgic  towns  ; 
the  city  of  Thessaloni'ca  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  ^Ene'a;  there  Avas  an  ^E'nus  in  Thrace,*  another 
in  Thessaly,*  another  among  the  Locrians,  and  another  in 
Epi'rus  :*  hence  it  is  not  very  improbable  but  that  some  of 

*  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  the  Pelas'gi  were  the  original 
settlers  in  these  countries. 


CREDIBILITY    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORY.  21 

the  Pelasgic  tribes  which  entered  Latium  may  have  been 
called  the  ^Ene'adae ;  and  the  name,  as  in  a  thousand  in- 
stances, preserved  after  the  cause  was  forgotten.  This 
conjecture  is  confirmed  by  the  fact,  that  temples  traditionally 
said  to  have  been  erected  by  a  people  called  the  ^Ene'adae, 
are  found  in  the  Macedonian  peninsula  of  Pall'ene,*  in  the 
islands  of  De'los,  Cythe'ra,  Zacy'nthus,  Leuca'dia,  and 
Sicily,  on  the  western  coasts  of  Ambra'cia  and  Epi'rus,  and 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily. 

The  account  of  several  Trojans,  and  especially  ^Ene'as, 
having  survived  the  destruction  of  the  city,  is  as  old  as  the 
earliest  narrative  of  that  famous  siege  ;  Homer  distinctly 
asserts  it  when  he  makes  Neptune  declare, 


Nor  thus  can  Jove  resign 


The  future  father  of  the  Dardan  line  : 

The  first  great  ancestor  obtain'd  his  grace, 

And  still  his  love  descends  on  all  the  race. 

For  Priam  now,  and  Priam's  faithless  kind, 

At  length  are  odious  to  the  all-seeing  mind ; 

On  great  ^En«>as  shall  devolve  the  reign, 

And  sons  succeeding  sons  the  lasting  line  sustain. 

ILIAD,  xx. 

But  long  before  the  historic  age,  Phrygia  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  western  shores  of  Asia  Minor  were  occupied  by 
Grecian  colonies,  and  all  remembrance  of  ^Ene'as  and  his 
followers  lost.  When  the  narrative  of  the  Trojan  war, 
with  other  Greek  legends,  began  to  be  circulated  in  Lati'um, 
it  was  natural  that  the  identity  of  name  should  have  led  to 
the  confounding  of  the  ^Ene'adas  who  had  survived  the 
destruction  of  Troy,  with  those  who  had  come  to  La'tium 
from  the  Pelasgic  ^E'nus.  The  cities  which  were  said  to 
be  founded  by  the  ^Ene'adae  were,  Latin  Troy,  which  pos- 
sessed empire  for  three  years ;  Lavinium,  whose  sway  lasted 
thirty ;  Alba,  which  was  supreme  for  three  hundred  years  ; 
and  Rome,  whose  dominion  was  (o  be  interminable,  though 
some  assign  a  limit  of  three  thousand  years.  These  num- 
bers bear  evident  traces  of  superstitious  invention  ;  and  the 
legends  by  which  these  cities  are  successively  deduced  from 
the  first  encampment  of  JEne'as,  are  at  variance  with  these 
fanciful  periods.  The  account  that  Alba  was  built  by  a  son 
of  ^Ene'as,  who  had  been  guided  to  the  spot  by  a  white 
sow,  which  had  farrowed  thirty  young,  is  clearly  a  story 

•  In  all  these  places  we  find  also  the  Tyrrhenian  Pclas'gi. 


22  HISTORY   OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

framed  from  the  similarity  of  the  name  to  Albus  (white,) 
and  the  circumstance  of  the  city  having  been  the  capital  of 
the  thirty  Latin  tribes,  i  The  city  derived  its  name  from  its 
position  on  the  Alban  mountain ;  for  Mb,  or  Jllp,  signifies 
lofty  in  the  ancient  language  of  Italy,  and  the  emblem  of  a 
sow  with  thirty  young,  may  have  been  a  significant  emblem 
of  the  dominion  which  it  unquestionably  possessed  over  the 
other  Latin  states.  The  only  thing  that  we  can  establish  as 
certain  in  the  early  history  of  La'tium  is,  that  its  inhabitants 
were  of  a  mixed  race,  and  the  sources  from  \vhence  they 
sprung  Pelasgic  and  Oscan  ;  that  is,  one  connected  with  the 
Greeks,  and  the  other  with  some  ancient  Italian  tribe.  We 
have  seen  that  this  fact  is  the  basis  of  all  their  traditions, 
that  it  is  confirmed  by  the  structure  of  their  language,  and, 
we  may  add,  that  it  is  further  proved  by  their  political  in- 
stitutions. In  all  the  Latin  cities,  as  well  as  Rome,  we  find 
the  people  divided  into  an  aristocracy  and  democracy,  or, 
3S  they  are  more  properly  called,  Patricians  and  Plebeians. 
The  experience  of  all  ages  warrants  the  inference,  which 
may  be  best  stated  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Faber:  "In  the 
progress  of  the  human  mind  there  is  an  invariable  tendency 
not  to  introduce  into  an  undisturbed  community  a  palpable 
difference  between  lords  and  serfs,  instead  of  a  legal  equality 
of  rights ;  but  to  abolish  such  difference  by  enfranchising 
the  serfs.  Hence,  from  the  universal  experience  of  history, 
we  may  be  sure  that  whenever  this  distinction  is  found  to 
exist,  the  society  must  be  composed  of  two  races  differing 
from  each  other  in  point  of  origin." 

The  traditions  respecting  the  origin  of  Rome  are  innu 
merable  ;  some  historians  assert  that  its  founder  was  a 
Greek;  others,  ^Eneas  and  his  Trojans;  and  others  give 
the  honour  to  the  Tyrrhenians :  all,  however,  agree,  that 
the  first  inhabitants  were  a  Latin  colony  from  Alba.  Even 
those  who  adopted  the  most  current  story,  which  is  followed 
by  Dr.  Goldsmith,  believed  that  the  city  existed  before  the 
time  of  Rom'ulus,  and  that  he  was  called  the  founder  from 
being  the  first  who  gave  it  strength  and  stability.  It  seems 
probable  that  several  villages  might  have  been  formed  at  an 
early  age  on  the  different  hills,  which  were  afterwards 
included  in  the  circuit  of  Rome  ;  and  that  the  first  of  them 
which  obtained  a  decided  superiority,  the  village  on  the 
Palatine  hill,  finally  absorbed  the  rest,  and  gave  its  name  to 
"  the  eternal  city  " 

There  seems  to  be  some  uncertainty  whether  Romulus 


TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROM*.  23 

gave  his  name  to  the  city,  or  derived  his  own  from  it ;  the 
latter  is  asserted  by  several  historians,  but  those  who  ascribe 
to  the  city  a  Grecian  origin,  with  some  show  of  probability 
assert  that  Romus  (another  form  of  Romulus)  and  Roma  are 
both  derived  from  the  Greek  pupm  strength.  The  city,  we 
are  assured,  had  another  name,  Avhich  the  priests  were  for- 
bidden to  divulge  ;  but  what  that  was,  it  is  now  impossible 
to  discover. 

We  have  thus  traced  the  history  of  the  Latins  down  to 
the  period  when  Rome  was  founded,  or  at  least  when  it 
became  a  city,  and  shown  how  little  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  the  accounts  given  of  these  periods  by  the  early  histori- 
ans. We  shall  hereafter  see  that  great  uncertainty  rests  on 
the  history  of  Rome  itself  during  the  first  four  centuries  of 
its  existence. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROME. 

1.  THE  city  of  Rome,  according  to  Farro,  was  founded 
in  the  fourth  year  of  the  sixth  Olympiad,  B.C.  753;  but 
Cato,  the  censor,  places  the  event  four  years  later,  in  the 
second  year  of  the  seventh  Olympiad.  The  day  of  its* 
foundation  was  the  21st  of  April,  which  was  sacred  to  the 
rural  goddess  Pa'les,  when  the  rustics  were  accustomed  to 
solicit  the  increase  of  their  flocks  from  the  deity,  and  to 
purify  themselves  for  involuntary  violation  of  the  consecrated 
places.  The  account  preserved  by  tradition  of  the  ceremo- 
nies used  on  this  occasion,  confirms  the  opinion  of  those  who 
contend  that  Rome  had  a  previous  existence  as  a  village, 
and  that  what  is  called  its  foundation  was  really  an  enlarge- 
ment of  its  boundaries,  by  taking  in  the  ground  at  the  foot 
of  the  Palatine  hill.  The  first  care  of  Ro'mulus  was  to 
mark  out  the  Pomce'rium ;  a  space  round  the  walls  of  the 
city,  on  which  it  was  unlawful  to  erect  buildings.  2.  The 
person  who  determined  the  Pomoe'rium  yoked  a  bullock 
and  heifer  to  a  plough,  having  a  copper-share,  and  drew  a 
furrow  to  mark  the  course  of  the  future  wall ;  he  guided  the 
plough  so  that  all  the  sods  might  fall  inwards,  and  was 


24  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION*. 

followed  by  others,  who  took  care  that  none  should  lie  the 
other  way.  3.  \Vhcn  he  came  to  the  place  where  it  was 
designed  to  erect  a  gate,  the  plough  was  taken  up,*  and 
carried  to  where  the  wall  recommenced.  The  next  cere- 
mony was  the  consecration  of  the  commit'ium,  or  place  of 
public  assembly.  A  vault  was  built  under  ground,  and  filled 
with  the  firstlings  of  all  the  natural  productions  that  sustain 
human  life,  and  with  earth  which  each  foreign  settler  had 
brought  from  his  own  home.  This  place  was  called  Muri- 
du$,  and  was  supposed  to  become  the  gate  of  the  lower 
world  ;  it  was  opened  on  three  several  days  of  the  year,  for 
the  spirits  of  the  dead. 

4.  The  next  addition  made  to  the  city  was  the  Sabine 
town,t  which  occupied  the  Quirinal  and  part  of  the  Capito- 
line  hills.  The  name  of  this  town  most  probably  was 
Qui'rium,  and  from  it  the  Roman  people  received  the  name 
Quirites.  The  tAvo  cities  were  united  on  terms  of  equality, 
and  the  double-faced  Ja'nus  stamped  on  the  earliest  Roman 
coins  was  probably  a  symbol  of  the  double  state.  They 
were  at  first  so  disunited,  that  even  the  rights  of  intermar- 
riage did  not  exist  between  them,  and  it  was  probably  from 
Qui'rium  that  the  Roman  youths  obtained  the  wives J  by 
force,  which  were  refused  to  their  entreaties.  5.  The  next 
addition  was  the  Coelian  hill,§  on  which  a  Tuscan  colony 
settled ;  from  these  three  colonies  the  three  tribes  of  Ram'- 
nes,  Ti'ties,  and  Lu 'ceres  were  formed.  6.  The  Ram'nes, 
or  Ram'nenses,  derived  their  name  from  Rom'ulus ;  the 
Tities,  or  Titien'ses,  from  Titus  Tatius,  the  king  of  the 

*  Hence  a  gate  was  called  porta,  from  porta're,  to  carry.  The 
reason  of  this  part  of  the  ceremony  was,  that  the  plough  being  deemed 
holy,  it  was  unlawful  that  any  thing  unclean  should  pollute  the  place 
which  it  had  touched  ;  but  it  was  obviously  necessary  that  things 
clean  and  unclean  should  pass  through  the  gates  of  the  city.  It  is 
remarkable  that  all  the  ceremonies  here  mentioned  were  imitated  from 
the  Tuscans. 

-(-  This,  though  apparently  a  mere  conjecture,  has  been  so  fully  proved 
by  Niebuhr,  (vol.  i.  p.  251,)  that  it  may  safely  be  assumed  as  an  histo- 
rical fact. 

$  See  Chapter  IT.  of  the  following  history. 

§  All  authors  are  agreed  that  the  Coelian  hill  was  named  from  Cceles 
Viben'na,  a  Tuscan  chief;  but  there  is  a  great  variety  in  the  data 
assigned  to  his  settlement  at  Rome.  Some  make  him  cotemporary  with 
Rom'ulus,  others  with  the  elder  Tarquin,  or  Servius  Tulhus.  In  this 
uncertainty  all  that  can  be  satisfactorily  determined  is,  that  at  some  early 
period  a  Tuscan  colony  settled  in  Rome. 


THE   TOPOGRAPHY   OF   ROME.  25 

Sabines  ;  and  the  Lu'ceres,  from  Lu'cumo,  the  Tuscan 
title  of  a  general  or  leader.*  From  this  it  appears  that  the 
three  tribest  were  really  three  distinct  nations,  differing  in 
their  origin,  and  dwelling  apart. 

7.  The  city  was  enlarged  by  Tullus  Hostilius4  after  the 
destruction  of  Alba,  and  the  Viminal  hill  included  withiu 
the  walls ;  Ancus  Martius  added  mount  Aventine,  and  the 
Esquiline  and  Capitoline§  being  enclosed  in  the  next  reign, 
completed  the  number  of  the  seven  hills  on  which  the 
ancient  city  stood. 

8.  The  hill  called  Jani'culum,  on  the  north  bank  of  tre 
Tiber,  was  fortified  as  an  outwork  by  Ancus  Martius,  and 
joined  to  the  city  by  the  bridge ;  he  also  dug  a  trench  round 
the  newly  erected  buildings,  for  their  greater  security,  and 
called  it  the  ditch  of  the  Quirites.     9.  The  public  works 
erected  by  the  kings  were  of  stupendous  magnitude,  but  the 
private  buildings  were  wretched,  the  streets  narrow,  and  the 
nouses  mean.     It  was  not  until  after  the  burning  of  the  city 
by  the  Gauls  that  the  city  was  laid  out  on  a  better  plan ; 
after  the  Punic  wars  wealth  flowed  in  abundantly,  and  pri- 
vate persons  began  to  erect  magnificent  mansions.    From  the 
period  of  the  conquest  of  Asia  until  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
the  city  daily  augmented  its  splendour,  but  so  much  was 
added   by  that  emperor,  that  he  boasted  that  "  he   found 
Rome  a  city  of  brick,  and  left  it  a  city  of  marble." 

10.  The  circumference  of  the  city  has  been  variously 
estimated,  some  writers  including  in  their  computation  a 
part  of  the  suburbs  ;  according  to  Pliny  it  was  near  twenty 
miles   round  the  walls.     In  consequence  of  this  great  ex- 
tent  the    city  had  more   than    thirty  gates,  of  which   the 
most  remarkable  were  the  Carmental,  the   Esquiline,  the 
Triumphal,  the  Naval,  and  those  called   Tergem'ina   and 
Cape'na. 

11.  The  division  of  the*  city  into  four  tribes  continued 
until  the  reign  of  Augustus ;   a  new  arrangement  was  made 
by  the  emperor,  who  divided  Rome  into  fourteen  wards,  or 

•  Others  say  that  they  were  named  so  in  honour  of  Lu'ceres,  king 
of  Ardea,  according  to  which  theory  the  third  would  have  been  a 
Pelasgo-Tyrrhenian  colony. 

j-  We  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to  remark,  that  the  Lu'ceres  wer« 
subject  to  the  other  tribes. 

*  See  History,  Chapter  IV. 

§  The  Pincian  and  Vatican  hills  were  added  at  a  much  later  period 
and  these,  with  Jaiiiculum,  made  the  number  ten. 

c 


20  HISTOKY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

regions.*  The  magnificent  public  and  private  buildings  in 
a  city  so  extensive  and  wealthy  were  very  numerous,  and  a 
bare  catalogue  of  them  would  fill  a  volume  ;t  our  attention 
must  be  confined  to  those  which  possessed  some  historical 
importance. 

12.  The  most  celebrated  and  conspicuous  buildings  were 
in  the  eighth  division  of  the  city,  which  contained  the 
Capitol  and  its  temples,  the  Senate  House,  and  the  Forum. 
The  Capitoline-hill  was  anciently  called  Saturnius,  from  the 
ancient  city  of  Satur'nia,  of  which  it  was  the  citadel ;  it 
was  afterwards  called  the  Tarpeian  mount,  and  finally  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Capitoline  from  a  human  headj  being 
found  on  its  summit  when  the  foundations  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  were  laid.  It  had  two  summits  ;  that  on  the  south 
retained  the  name  Tarpeian  ;§  the  northern  was  properly 
the  Capitol.  13.  On  this  part  of  the  hill  Romulus  first 
established  his  asylum,  in  a  sacred  grove,  dedicated  to 
some  unknown  divinity ;  and  erected  a  fort  or  citadel  ||  on 
the  Tarpeian  summit.  The  celebrated  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitoli'nus,  erected  on  this  hill,  was  begun  by  the  elder 
Tarquin,  and  finished  by  Tarquin  the  Proud.  It  was 
burned  down  in  the  civil  wars  between  Ma'rius  and  Syl'la, 


*  They  were  named  as  follow : 


1.  Porta  Cape'na 

2.  Coelimon'tium 

3.  I'sis  and  Sera'pis 

4.  Via  Sa'cra 

5.  Esquili'na 


6.  Acta  Se'mita 

7.  Vita  Lata 

8.  Forum  Roma'num 

9.  Circus  Flamin'iuts 
10.  Pala'tium 


11.  Circus  Max'imus 

12.  Pici'na  Pub'lica 

13.  Aventinus 

14.  Transtiberi'na. 


The  divisions  made  by  Servius  were  named :  the  Suburan,  which 
comprised  chiefly  the  Ccelian  mount ;  the  Colline,  which  included  the 
Vimirial  and  Quirinal  hills;  the  Esquiline  and  Palatine,  which  evidently 
coincided  with  the  hills  of  the  same  name. 

•f  Among  the  public  buildings  of  ancient  Rome,  when  in  her  zenith, 
are  numbered  420  temples,  five  regular  theatres,  two  amphitheatres,  and 
seven  circusses  of  vast  extent ;  sixteen  public  baths,  fourteen  aqueducts, 
from  which  a  prodigious  number  of  fountains  were  constantly  supplied ; 
innumerable  palaces  and  public  halls,  stately  columns,  splendid  porticos, 
and  lofty  obelisks. 

t  From  caput,  "  a  head." 

§  State  criminals  were  punished  hy  being  precipitated  from  the  Tar- 
peian rock ;  the  soil  has  been  since  so  much  raised  by  the  accumulation 
of  ruins,  that  a  fall  from  it  is  no  longer  dangerous. 

H  In  the  reign  of  Numa,  the  Quirinal  hill  was  deemed  the  citadel  of 
Rome;  ai  additional  confirmation  of  IViebuhr's  theory,  that  Quirium 
was  a  Sa  ;ine  town,  which,  being  early  absorbed  in  Rome,  was  mistaken 
py  s^jsotient  writers  for  Cu'res. 


THE   TOPOGRAPHY   OF   ROME.  27 

but  restored  by  the  latter,  who  adorned  it  with  pillars  taken 
from  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia.  It  was  rebuilt  after 
similar  accidents  by  Vespa'sian  and  Domitian,  and  on  each 
occasion  with  additional  splendour.  The  rich  ornaments 
and  gifts  presented  to  this  temple  by  different  princes  and 
generals  amounted  to  a  scarcely  credible  sum.  The  gold 
and  jewels  given  by  Augustus  alone  are  said  to  have 
exceeded  in  value  four  thousand  pounds  sterling.  A  nail 
was  annually  driven  into  the  wall  of  the  temple  to  mark 
the  course  of  time ;  besides  this  chronological  record,  it 
contained  the  Sibylline  books,  and  other  oracles  supposed 
to  be  pregnant  with  the  fate  of  the  city.  There  were  several 
other  temples  on  this  hill,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  was 
that  of  Jupiter  Feretrius,  erected  by  Romulus,  where  the 
spolia  opima  were  deposited. 

14.  The  Forum,  or  place  of  public  assembly,  was  situated 
between  the   Palatine  and   Capitoline   hills.     It  was   sur- 
rounded with  temples,  basilicks,*  and  public   offices,  and 
adorned  with  innumerable  statues.t     On  one  side  of  this 
space  were  the  elevated  seats  from  which  the  Roman  magis- 
trates and  orators  addressed  the  people ;   they  were  called 
Rostra,  because  they  were  ornamented  with  the  beaks  of 
some  galleys  taken  from  the  city  of  Antium.     In  the  centre 
of  the  forum  was  a  place  called  the  Curtian  Lake,  either 
from  a  Sabine  general  called  Curtius,  said  to  have  been 
smothered  in  the  marsh  which  was  once  there ;  or  from  J 
jhe  Roman  knight  who  plunged  into  a  gulf  that  opened  sud- 
denly on  the  spot.     The  celebrated  temple  of  Ja'nus,  built 
entirely  of  bronze,  stood  in  the  Forum ;   it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  erected  by  Numa.    The  gates  of  this  temple  were 
opened  in  time  of  war,  and  shut  during  peace.     So  con- 
tinuous were  the  wars  of  the  Romans,  that  the  gates  were 
only  closed  three  times  during  the  space  of  eight  centuries. 
In  the  vicinity  stood  the  temple  of  Concord,  where  the 
senate  frequently  assembled,  and  the  temple  of  Vesta,  where 
the  palla'dium  was  said  to  be  deposited. 

15.  Above  the  rostra  was  the  Senate-house,  said  to  have 

*  Basilicks  were  spacious  halls  for  the  administration  of  justice. 

•\  It  is  called  Templwn  by  Livy ;  but  the  word  templum  with  th« 
Romans  does  not  mean  an  edifice,  but  a  consecrated  inclosure.  From 
its  position,  we  may  conjecture  that  the  forum  was  originally  a  place  of 
meeting  common  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sabine  town  on  the  Quirinal. 
and  the  Latin  town  on  the  Palatine  hill. 

$  Sec  Chap.  XII.  Sect.  V.  of  the  following  History. 


28  HISTORY   OF   ROME INTRODUCTION. 

been  first  erected  by  Tullus  Hostilius ;  and  near  it  the 
Comitium,  or  place  of  meeting  for  the  patrician  Curiae.* 
This  area  was  at  first  uncovered,  but  a  roof  was  erected  at 
the  close  of  the  second  Pu'nic  war. 

16.  The  Cam'pus  Mar'tius,  or  field  of  Mars,  was  origin- 
ally the  estate  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  was,  with  his 
other  property,  confiscated  after  the  expulsion  of  that 
monarch.  It  was  a  large  space,  where  armies  were  mus- 
tered, general  assemblies  of  the  people  held,  and  the  young 
nobility  trained  in  martial  exercises.  In  the  later  ages,  it 
was  surrounded  by  several  magnificent  structures,  and  porti- 
cos were  erected,  under  which  the  citizens  might  take  their 
accustomed  exercise  in  rainy  weather.  These  improvements 
were  principally  made  by  Marcus  Agrippa,  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  17.  He  erected  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  Pan- 
the'on,  or  temple  of  all  the  gods,  one  of  the  most  splendid 
buildings  in  ancient  Rome.  It  is  of  a  circular  form,  and  its 
roof  is  in  the  form  of  a  cupola  or  dome ;  it  is  used  at  present 
as  a  Christian  church.  Near  the  Panthe'on  were  the  baths 
and  gardens  which  Agrippa,  at  his  death,  bequeathed  to  the 
Roman  people. 

•  18.  The  theatres  and  circi  for  the  exhibition  of  public 
spectacles  were  very  numerous.  The  first  theatre  was 
erected  by  Pompey  the  Great ;  but  the  Circus  Maximus, 
where  gladiatorial  combats  were  displayed,  was  erected  by 
Tarquinus  Priscus  ;  this  enormous  building  was  frequently 
enlarged,  and  in  the  age  of  Pliny  could  accommodate  two 
hundred  thousand  spectators.  A  still  more  remarkable  edi- 
fice was  the  amphitheatre  erected  by  Vespasian,  called,  from 
its  enormous  size,  the  Colosse'um. 

19.  Public  baths  were  early  erected  for  the  use  of  the 
people,  and  in  the  later  ages  were  among  the  most  remark- 
able displays  of  Roman  luxury  and  splendour.   Lofty  arches, 
stately  pillars,  vaulted  ceilings,  seats  of  solid  silver,  costly 
marbles  inlaid  with  precious  stones,  were  exhibited  in  these 
buildings  with  the  most  lavish  profusion. 

20.  The  aqueducts  for  supplying  the  city  with  water, 
were  still  more  worthy  of  admiration  ;  they  were  supported 
by  arches,  many  of  them  a  hundred  feet  high,  and  carried 
over  mountains  and  morasses   that  might   have   appeared 
insuperable.     The  first  aqueduct  was  erected  by  Ap'pius 
Co'«\i»,  the  censor,  four  hundred  years  after  the  founda- 

{  See  the  following  chapter. 


THE    TOPOGRAPHY   OF    ROME.  29 

tion  of  the  city  ;  but  under  the  emperors  there  were  not  less 
than  twenty  of  these  useful  structures,  and  such  was  the  sup 
ply  of  water,  that  rivers  seemed  to  flow  through  the  streets 
and  sewers.  Even  now,  though  only  three  of  the  aqueducts 
remain,  such  are  their  dimensions  that  no  city  in  Europe 
has  a  greater  abundance  of  wholesome  water  than  Rome. 

21.  The  Cloa'cae,  or  common  sewers,  attracted  the  won- 
der of  the  ancients  themselves ;  the  largest  was  completed 
by  Tarquin  the  Proud.     The  innermost  vault  of  this  aston- 
ishing structure  forms  a  semicircle  eighteen  Roman  palms 
wide,  and  as  many  high :  this  is  inclosed  in  a  second  vault, 
and  that  again  in  a  third,  all  formed  of  hewn  blocks  of  pe- 
penno,  fixed  together  without  cement.     So  extensive  were 
these  channels,  that  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  the  city  was 
subterraneously  navigable. 

22.  The  public  roads  were  little  inferior  to  the  aqueducts 
and  Cloa'cae  in  utility  and  costliness ;   the   chief  was   the 
Appian  road  from  Rome  to  Brundu'sium ;  it  extended  three 
hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  was  paved  with  huge  squares 
through  its  entire  length.     After  the  lapse  of  nineteen  cen- 
turies many  parts  of  it  are  still  as  perfect  as  when  it  was 
first  made. 

23.  The    Appian   road   passed   through    the    following 
towns ;    Ari'cia,    Fo'rum    Ap'pii,    An'xur    or    Terraci'na, 
Fun'di,  Mintur'nae,  Sinue'ssa,    Cap'ua,    Can'dium,    Bene- 
ven'tum,  Equotu'ticum,   Herdo'nia,    Canu'sium,    Ba'rium, 
and  Brundu'sium.     Between  Fo'rum  Ap'pii  and  Terraci'na 
lie  the  celebrated  Pomptine  marshes,  formed  by  the  over- 
flowing of  some  small  streams.     In  the  flourishing  ages  of 
Roman  history  these  pestilential  marshes  did  not  exist,  or 
were  confined  to  a  very  limited  space  ;  but  from  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  empire,  the  waters  gradually  encroached,  un- 
til the  successful  exertions  made  by  the  Pontiffs  in  modern 
times  to  arrest  their  baleful  progress.     Before  the  drainage 
of  Pope  Sixtus,  the  marshes  covered  at  least  thirteen  thou- 
sand acres  of  ground,  which  in  the  earlier  ages  was  the 
most  fruitful  portion  of  the  Italian  soil. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  When  was  Rome  founded  ? 

2.  What  ceremonies  were  used  in  determining  t^ 

3.  How  was  the  comitium  consecrated  1 

4.  What  was  the  first  addition  made  to  Rome! 

£  2 


30  HISTORY   OF   ROME — INTRODUCTION. 

6.  What  was  the  next  addition  1 
6.  Into  what  tribes  were  the  Romans  divided  1 
.7.  What  were  the  hills  added  in  later  times  to  Rome! 

8.  Had  the  Romans  any  buildings  north  of  the  Tiber  1 

9.  When  did  Rome  become  a  magnificent  city  1 

1 0.  What  was  the  extent  of  the  city  1 

1 1 .  How  was  the  city  divided  ? 

1 2.  Which  was  the  most  remarkable  of  the  seven  hills  ? 

13.  What  buildings  were  on  the  Capitoline  hill  1 

14.  What  description  is  given  of  the  forum  1 

15.  Where  was  the  senate-house  and  comitium  1 

16.  What  use  was  made  of  the  Campus  Martius? 

17.  What  was  the  Pantheon's 

18.  Were  the  theatres  and  circii  remarkable? 

1 9.  Had  the  Romans  public  baths  1 

20.  How  was  the  city  supplied  with  water  ? 

21.  Were  the  cloacae  remarkable  for  their  size  1 

22.  Which  was  the  chief  Italian  road  ? 

23.  What  were  the  most  remarkable  places  on  the  Appian  road  ? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    ROMAN    CONSTITUTION. 

1.  THE  'jrost  remarkable  feature  in  the  Roman  constitu- 
tion is  the  division  of  the  people  into  Patricians  and  Ple- 
beians, and  our  first  inquiry  must  be  the  origin  of  this  sepa- 
ration. It  is  clearly  impossible  that  such  a  distinction  could 
have  existed  from  the  very  beginning,  because  no  persons 
would  have  consented  in  a  new  community  to  the  investing 
of  any  class  with  peculiar  privileges.  We  find  that  all  the 
Roman  kings,  after  they  had  subdued  a  city,  drafted  a  por- 
tion of  its  inhabitants  to  Rome ;  and  if  they  did  not  destroy 
the  subjugated  place,  garrisoned  it  with  a  Roman  colony. 
The  strangers  thus  brought  to  Rome  were  not  admitted  to  a 
participation  of  civic  rights  ;  they  were  like  the  inhabilants 
of  a  corporate  town  who  are  excluded  from  the  elective 
franchise  :  by  successive  immigrations,  the  number  of  per- 
sons thus  disqualified  became  more  numerous  than  that  of 
the  first  inhabitants  or  old  freemen,  and  they  naturally 
sought  a  share  in  the  government,  as  a  means  of  protecting 
their  persons  and  properties.  On  the  other  hand,  the  men 
who  possessed  the  exclusive  power  of  legislation,  struggled 
hard  to  retain  their  hereditary  privileges,  and  when  forced 


THE    ROMAN    CONSTITUTION.  31 

to  make  concessions,  yielded  as  little  as  they  possibly  could 
to  the  popular  demands.  Modern  history  furnishes  us  with 
numerous  instances  of  similar  struggles  between  classes,  and 
of  a  separation  in  interests  and  feelings  between  inhabitants 
of  the  same  country,  fully  as  strong  as  that  between  the  pa- 
tricians and  plebeians  at  Rome. 

2.  The  first  tribes  were  divided  by  Ro'mulus  into  thirty 
cu'rix,  and  each  cu'ria  contained  ten  gentes  or  associations 
The  individuals  of  each  gens  were  not  in  all  cases,  and  pro 
bably  not  in  the  majority  of  instances,  connected  by  birth;* 
the  attributes  of  the  members  of  a  gens,  according  to  Cicero, 
were,  a  common  name  and  participation  in  private  religious 
rites  ;  descent  from  free  ancestors  ;  the  absence  of  legal  dis- 
qualification. 3.  The  members  of  these  associations  were 
united  by  certain  laws,  which  conferred  peculiar  privileges, 
called  jura  gentium;  of  these  the  most  remarkable  were, 
the  succession  to  the  property  of  every  member  who  died 
without  kin  and  intestate,  and  the  obligation  imposed  on  all 
to  assist  their  indigent  fellows  under  any  extraordinary  bur- 
then.t  4.  The  head  of  each  gens  was  regarded  as  a  kind 
of  father,  and  possessed  a  paternal  authority  over  the  mem- 
bers ;  the  chieftancy  was  both  elective  and  hereditary ;{ 
that  is,  the  individual  was  always  selected  from  some  par- 
ticular family. 

5.  Besides  the  members  of  the  gens,  there  were  attached 
to  it  a  number  of  dependents  called  clients,  who  owed  sub- 
mission to  the  chief  as  their  patron,  and  received  from  him 
assistance  and  protection.     The  clients  were  generally  fo- 
reigners who  came  to  settle  at  Rome,  and  not  possessing 
municipal  rights,  were  forced  to  appear  in  the  courts  of  law, 
&c.  by  proxy.     In  process  of  time  this  relation  assumed  a 
feudal  form,  and  the  clients  were  bound  to  the  same  duties 
as  vassals§  in  the  middle  ages. 

6.  The  chiefs  of  the  gentes  composed   the  senate,   and 
were  called  "  fathers,"  (patres.)     In  the  time  of  Romulus, 

*  The  same  remark  may  be  applied  to  the  Scottish  clans  and  the  an- 
cient Irish  septs,  which  were  very  similar  to  the  Roman  gentes. 

f  When  the  plebeians  endeavoured  to  procure  the  repeal  of  the  laws 
which  prohibited  the  intermarriage  of  the  patricians  and  plebeians,  the 
principal  objection  made  by  the  former  was,  that  these  rights  and  obli- 
gations of  the  gentes  (jura  gentium)  would  be  thrown  into  confusion. 

t  This  was  also  the  case  with  the  Irish  tanists,  or  chiefs  of  septs ;  the 
people  elected  a  tanist,  but  their  choice  was  confined  to  the  members  of 
the  ruling  family. 

i  See  Historical  Miscellany  Part  UI.  Chap.  i. 


32  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

the  senate  at  first  consisted  only  of  one  hundred  members, 
who  of  course  represented  the  Latin  tribe  Ramne'nses  ;  the 
number  was  doubled  after  the  union  with  the  Sabines,  and 
the  new  members  were  chosen  from  the  Titienses.  The 
Tuscan  tribe  of  the  Lu 'ceres  remained  unrepresented  in  the 
senate  until  the  reign  of  the  first  Tarquin,  when  the  legisla- 
tive body  received  another  hundred*  from  that  tribe.  Tar- 
quin the  elder  was,  according  to  history,  a  Tuscan  lucumo, 
and  seems  to  have  owed  his  elevation  principally  to  the  ef- 
forts of  his  compatriots  settled  at  Rome.  It  is  to  this  event 
we  must  refer,  in  a  great  degree,  the  number  of  Tuscan 
ceremonies  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  political  institu- 
tions of  the  Romans. 

7.  The  gentes  were  not  only  represented  in  the  senate, 
but  met  also  in  a  public  assembly  called  "  comitia  curiata." 
In  these  comitia  the  kings  were  elected  and  invested  with 
royal  authority.     After  the  complete  change  of  the  consti- 
tution in  later  ages,  the  "  comitia  curiata"t  rarely  assem- 
bled, and  their  power  was  limited  to  religious  matters ;  but 
during  the  earlier  period  of  the  republic,  they  claimed  and 
frequently  exercised  the  supreme  powers  of  the  state,  and 
were  named  emphatically,  The  People. 

8.  The  power  and  prerogatives  of  the  kings  at  Rome, 
were  similar  to  those  of  the  Grecian  sovereigns  in  the  heroic 
ages.    The  monarch  was  general  of  the  army,  a  high  priest, J 
and  first  magistrate  of  the  realm  ;  he  administered  justice  in 
person  every  ninth  day,  but  an  appeal  lay  from  his  sentence, 
in  criminal  cases,  to  the  general  assemblies  of  the  people. 

*  They  were  called  "  patres  nunorum  gentium,"  the  senators  of  tht, 
inferior  gentes. 

•j-  The  "  comitia  curiata,"  assembled  in  the  comi'tium,  the  general 
assemblies  of  the  people  were  held  in  the  forum.  The  patrician  curia 
were  called,  emphatically,  the  council  of  the  people ;  (concilium  populi ;) 
the  third  estate  was  called  plebeian,  (plebs.)  This  distinction  between 
popuhts  and  plebs  was  disregarded  after  the  plebeians  had  established 
their  claim  to  equal  rights.  The  English  reader  will  easily  understand 
the  difference,  if  he  considers  that  the  patricians  were  precisely  similar 
to  the  members  of  a  close  corporation,  and  the  plebeians  to  the  other 
inhabitants  of  a  city.  In  London,  for  example,  the  common  council 
may  represent  the  senate,  the  livery  answer  for  the  populus,  patricians, 
or  comitia  curiata,  and  the  general  body  of  other  inhabitants  will  cor- 
respond with  the  plebs. 

4  There  were  certain  sacrifices  which  the  Romans  believed  could  only 
be  offered  by  a  king;  after  the  abolition  of  royalty,  a  priest,  named  tho 
petty  sacrificing  king,  (rex  sacrificulus,)  was  elected  to  perform  this 
duty. 


THE    ROMAN    CONSTITUTION.  33 

The  pontiffs  and  augurs,  however,  were  in  some  measure 
independent  of  the  sovereign,  and  assumed  the  uncontrolled 
direction  of  the  religion  of  the  state. 

9.  The  entire  constitution  was  remodelled  by  Ser'vius 
Tul'lius,  and  a  more  liberal  form  of  government  introduced. 
His  first  and  greatest  achievement  was  the  formation  of  the 
plebeians  into  an  organized  order  of  the  state,  invested  with 
political   rights.     He    divided   them    into   four   cities    and 
twenty-six  rustic  tribes,  and  thus  made  the  number  of  tribes 
the  same  as  that  of  the  curia?.     This  was  strictly  a  geo- 
graphical division,  analagous  to  our  parishes,  and  had  no 
connection  with  families,  like  that  of  the  Jewish  tribes. 

10.  Still  more  remarkable  was  the  institution  of  the  cen- 
sus, and  the  distribution  of  the  people  into  classes  and  cen- 
turies  proportionate   to  their  wealth.     The   census  was  a 
periodical  valuation  of  all  the  property  possessed  by  the 
citizens,  and  an  enumeration  of  all  the  subjects  of  the  state : 
there  were  five  classes,  ranged  according  to  the  estimated 
value  of  their  possessions,  and  the  taxes  they  consequently 
paid.     The  first  class  contained  eighty  centuries  out  of  the 
hundred  and  seventy ;  the  sixth  class,  in  which  those  were 
included  who  were  too  poor  to  be  taxed,  counted  but  for 
one.     We  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to  see   that  this 
arrangement  was  also  used  for  military  purposes  ;  it  is  only 
necessary  to  say 'here,  that  the  sixth  class  were  deprived  of 
the  use  of  arms,  and  exempt  from  serving  in  war. 

11.  The  people  voted  in  the  comitia  centuriata  by  centu- 
ries ;  that  is,  the  vote  of  each  century  was  taken  separately 
and  counted  only  as  one.     By  this  arrangement  a  just  in- 
fluence was  secured  to  property,  and  the  clients  of  the  patri- 
cians in  the  sixth  class  prevented  from  out-numbering  the 
free  citizens. 

12.  Ser'vius  Tul'lius  undoubtedly  intended  that  the  co- 
mitia centuriata  should  form  the  third  estate  of  the  realm, 
and  during  his  reign   they  probably  held  that  rank ;  bvt 
when,  by  an  aristocractic  insurrection  he  was  slain  in  the 
senate-house,  the  power  conceded  to  the  people  was  again 
usurped  by  the  patricians,  and  the  comitio  centuriata  did  not 
recover  the  right*  of  legislation  before  the  lawst  of  the 
twelve  tables  were  established. 

•  Perhaps  it  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  the  exclusive  right  of 
legislation ;  for  it  appears  that  the  comitia  centuriata  were  sometime* 
summoned  to  give  their  sanction  to  laws  which  had  been  previously 
enacted  by  the  curie.  -j-  See  Chap.  XIL 


34  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

13.  The  law  which  made  the  debtor  a  slave  to  his  credi- 
tor was  repealed  by  Ser'vius,  and  re-enacted  by  his  succes- 
sor ;  the  patricians  preserved  this  abominable  custom  during1 
several  ages,  and  did  not  resign  it  until  the  state  had  been 
brought  to  the  very  brink  of  ruin. 

14.  During  the  reign  of  Ser'vius,  Rome  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  Latin  confederacy,  and  acknowledged  to  be 
the  metropolitan  city.     It  was  deprived  of  this  supremacy 
after  the  war  with  Porsen'na,  but  soon  recovered  its  former 
greatness. 

15.  The   equestrian  rank  was    an   order  in  the  Roman 
state  from  the  very  beginning.     It  was  at  first  confined  to 
the  nobility,  and  none  but  the  patricians  had  the  privilege 
of  serving  on  horseback.    But  in  the  later  ages,  it  became  a 
political  dignity,  and  persons  were  raised  to  the  equestrian 
rank  by  the  amount  of  their  possessions. 

16.  The  next  great  change  took  place  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  kings ;  annual  magistrates,  called  consuls,  were  elect- 
ed in  the  comitia  centuriata,  but  none  but  patricians  could 
hold  this  office.     17.  The  liberties  of  the  people  were  soon 
after  extended  and  secured  by  certain  laws,  traditionally  at- 
tributed to  Vale'rius   Public'ola,   of  which  the   most  im- 
portant was  that  which  allowed*  an  appeal  to  a  general  as- 
sembly of  the   people   from  the  sentence  of  a  magistrate. 
18.  To  deprive  the  plebeians  of  this  privilege  was  the  darling 
object  of  the  patricians,  and  it  was  for  this  purpose  alone 
that  they  instituted  the  dictatorship.     From  the  sentence  of 
this  magistrate  there  was  no  appeal  to  the  tribes  or  centu- 
ries, but  the  patricians  kept  their  own  privilege  of  being 
tried  before  the  tribunal  of  the  curiae.     19.  The  power  of 
the  state  was  now  usurped  by  a  factious  oligarchy,  whose 
oppressions  were  more  grievous  than  those  of  the  worst  ty- 
rant ;  they  at  last  became  so  intolerable,  that  the  common- 
alty had  recourse  to  arms,  and  fortified  that  part  of  the  city 
which  was  exclusively  inhabited   by  the  plebeians,  while 
others  formed  a  camp  on  the  Sacred  Mount  at  some  distance 
from  Rome.     A  tumult  of  this  kind  was  called  a  secession; 
it  threatened  to  terminate  in  a  civil  war,  which  would  have 
been   both  long  and  doubtful ;  for  the  patricians  and  their 
clients  were  probably  as  numerous  as  the  people.    A  recon- 

*  The  Romans  were  previously  acquainted  with  that  great  principle 
of  justice,  the  right  of  trial  by  a  person's  peers.  In  the  earliest  ages  the 
patricians  had  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  curiffi ;  the  Valerian  laws  extend- 
ed the,  same  right  to  the  plebeians. 


THE    ROMAN    CONSTITUTION.  35 

ciliation  was  effected,  and  the  plebeians  placed  under  the 
protection  of  magistrates  chosen  from  their  own  body,  called 
tribunes  of  the  people. 

20.  The  plebeians,  having  now  authorised  leaders,  began 
to  struggle  for  an  equalization  of  rights,  and  the  patricians 
resisted  them  with  the  most  determined  energy.     In  this 
protracted  contest  the  popular  cause  prevailed,  though  the 
patricians  made  use  of  the  most  violent  means  to  secure 
their  usurped  powers.     The  first  triumph  obtained  by  the 
people  was    the   right   to   summon   patricians   before    the 
comitia  tributa,  or  assemblies  of  people  in  tribes  ;  soon  after 
they  obtained  the  privilege  of  electing  their  tribunes  at  these 
comitia,  instead  of  the  centuria'ta  ;  and  finally,  after  a  fierce 
opposition,  the  patricians  were  forced  to  consent  that  the 
state  should  be  governed  by  a  written  code. 

21.  The  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  did  not  alter  the  legal 
relations  between  the  citizens ;  the  struggle  was  renewed 
with  greater  violence  than  ever  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
decem'viri,  but  finally  terminated  in  the  complete  triumph 
of  the  people.     The  Roman  constitution  became  essentially 
democratical ;  the  offices  of  the  state  were  open  to  all  the 
citizens  ;  and  although  the  difference  between  the  patrician 
and  plebeian  families  still  subsisted,  they  soon  ceased  of 
themselves   to    be    political   parties.     From   the   time   that 
equal  rights  were  granted  to  all  the  citizens,  Rome  advanced 
rapidly  in  wealth  and  power;  the  subjugation  of  Italy  was 
effected  within  the  succeeding  century,  and  that  was  soon 
followed  by  foreign  conquests. 

22.  In  the  early  part  of  the  struggle  between  the  patri- 
cians and  plebeians,  the  magistracy,  named  the  censorship, 
was  instituted.     The  censors  were  designed  at  first  merely 
to  preside  over  the  taking  of  the  census,  but  they  afterwards 
obtained  the  power  of  punishing,  by  a  deprivation  of  civil 
rights,  those  who  were  guilty  of  any  flagrant  immorality. 
The  patricians  retained  exclusive  possession  of  the  censor- 
ship, long  after  the   consulship   had  been  opened   to   the 
plebeians. 

23.  The  senate,*  which  had  been  originally  a  patrician 

•  The  senators  were  called  conscript  fathers,  (patres  conscript!,)  either 
from  their  being  enrolled  on  the  censor's  list,  or  more  probably  from  the 
addition  made  to  their  numbers  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  in  order 
to  supply  the  places  of  those  who  had  been  murdered  by  Tarquin.  The 
new  senators  were  at  first  called  conscript,  and  in  the  process  of  time 
the  name  was  extended  to  the  entire  body. 


36  HISTORY   OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

council,  was  gradually  opened  to  th«  plebeians ;  when  the 
free  constitution  was  perfected,  every  person  possessing  a 
competent  fortune  that  had  held  a  superior  magistracy,  was 
enrolled  as  a  senator  at  the  census  immediately  succeeding 
the  termination  of  his  office. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  is  the  most  probable  account  given  of  the  origin  of  the  dis- 

tinction between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians  at  Rome  ? 

2.  How  did  Romulus  subdivide  the  Roman  tribes  ] 

3.  By  what  regulations  were  the  gentes  governed  ? 
4    Who  were  the  chiefs  of  the  gentes  ? 

5.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  clients ? 

6.  By  whom  were  alterations  made  in  the  number  and  constitution  of 

the  senate  ? 

7.  What  assembly  was  peculiar  to  the  patricians? 

8.  What  were  the  powers  of  the  Roman  kings  1 

9.  What  great  change  was  made  in  the  Roman  constitution  by  Serviu* 

Tullius  ? 

10.  For  what  purpose  was  the  census  instituted ! 

11.  How  were  votes  taken  in  the  comitia  centuriata? 

12.  Were  the  designs  of  Servius  frustrated] 

13.  What  was  the  Roman  law  respecting  debtors? 

14.  When  did  the  Roman  power  decline? 

15.  What  changes  were  made  in  the  constitution  of  the  equestrian  rank! 

1 6.  What  change  was  made  after  the  abolition  of  royalty  ? 

17.  How  were  the  liberties  of  the  people  secured? 

18.  Why  was  the  office  of  dictator  appointed? 

19    How  did  the  plebeians  obtain  the  protection  of  magistrates  chosen 
from  their  own  order? 

20.  What  additional  triumphs  were  obtained  by  the  plebeians? 

21.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  establishment  of  freedom? 
22    For  what  purpose  was  the  censorship  instituted  ? 

Z'J.  What  change  took  place  in  the  constitution  of  the  senate? 


VHH  19MAV  T1VYEC  OT  IAWD.  37 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  ROMAN  TENURE  OF  LAND. COLONIAL  GOVERNMENT. 

[As  this  chapter  is  principally  designed  for  advanced  students,  it  has  no 
been  thought  necessary  to  add  questions  for  examination.] 

THE  contests  respecting  agrarian  laws  occupy  so  large  a 
space  in  Roman  history,  and  are  so  liable  to  be  misunder- 
stood, that  it  is  necessary  to  explain  their  origin  at  some 
length.  According  to  an  almost  universal  custom,  the  right 
of  conquest  was  supposed  to  involve  the  property  of  the 
land.  Thus  the  Normans  who  assisted  William  I.  were 
supposed  to  have  obtained  a  right  to  the  possessions  of  the 
Saxons ;  and  in  a  later  age,  the  Irish  princes,  whose  estates 
were  not  confirmed  by  a  direct  grant  from  the  English 
crown,  were  exposed  to  forfeiture  when  legally  summoned 
to  ptove  their  titles.  The  extensive  acquisitions  made  by 
the  Romans,  were  either  formed  into  extensive  national 
domains,  or  divided  into  small  lots  among  the  poorer  classes. 
The  usufruct  of  the  domains  was  monopolized  by  the  patri- 
cians who  rented  them  from  the  state  ;  the  smaller  lots  were 
assigned  to  the  plebeians,  subject  to  a  tax  called  tribute,  but 
not  to  rent.  VAn  agrarian  law  was  a  proposal  to  make  an 
assignment  of  portions  of  the  public  lands  to  the  people, 
and  to  limit  the  quantity  of  national  land  that  could  be 
farmed  by  any  particular  patrician. *)  Such  a  law  may  have 
been  frequently  impolitic,  because  it  may  have  disturbed 
ancient  possessions,  but  it  could  never  have  been  unjust;  for 
the  property  of  the  land  was  absolutely  fixed  in  the  state. 
The  lands  held  by  the  patricians,  being  divided  into  exten- 
sive tracts,  were  principally  used  for  pasturage  ;  the  small 
lots  assigned  to  the  plebeians  were,  of  necessity,  devoted  to 
agriculture.  Hence  arose  the  first  great  cause  of  hostility 
between  the  two  orders  ;  the  patricians  were  naturally  eager 
to  extend  their  possessions  in  the  public  domains,  which 
enabled  them  to  provide  for  their  numerous  clients ,  and  in 
remote  districts  they  frequently  wrested  the  estates  from  the 
free  proprietors  in  their  neighbourhood ;  the  plebeians,  on 

•  The  Licinian  law  provided  that  no  one  should  rent  at  a  time  more 
than  500  acres  of  public  land. ' 

D 


38  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION'. 

the  other  hand,  deemed  that  they  had  the  best  right  to  the 
land  purchased  by  their  blood,  and  saw  with  just  indigna- 
tion, the  fruits  of  victory  monopolized  by  a  single  order  in 
the  state.  The  tribute  paid  by  the  plebeians  increased  this 
hardship,  for  it  was  a  land-tax  levied  on  estates,  and  conse- 
quently fell  most  heavily  on  the  smaller  proprietors  ;  indeed, 
in  many  cases,  the  possessors  of  the  national  domains  paid 
nothing. 

From  all  this  it  is  evident  that  an  agrarian  law  only 
removed  tenants  who  held  from  the  state  at  will,  and  did 
not  in  any  case  interfere  with  the  sacred  right  of  property ; 
but  it  is  also  plain  that  such  a  change  must  have  been  fre- 
quently inconvenient  to  the  individual  in  possession.  It 
also  appears,  that  had  not  agrarian  laws  been  introduced,  the 
great  body  of  the  plebeians  would  have  become  the  clients 
of  the  patricians,  and  the  form  of  government  would  have 
been  a  complete  oligarchy. 

The  chief  means  to  which  the  Romans,  even  from  the 
earliest  ages,  had  recourse  for  securing  their  conquests,  and 
at  the  same  time  relieving  the  poorer  classes  of  citizens, 
was  the  establishment  of  colonies  in  the  conquered  states. 
The  new  citizens  formed  a  kind  of  garrison,  and  were  held 
together  by  a  constitution  formed  on  the  model  of  the  parent 
state.  From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  is  evident  that  a 
law  for  sending  out  a  colony  was  virtually  an  agrarian  law, 
since  lands  were  invariably  assigned  to  those  who  were  thus 
induced  to  abandon  their  homes. 

The  relations  between  Rome  and  the  subject  cities  in 
Italy  were  very  various.  Some,  called  municipia,  were 
placed  in  full  possession  of  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens,  but 
could  not  in  all  cases  vote  in  the  comitia.  The  privileges  of 
the  colonies  were  more  restricted,  for  they  were  absolutely 
excluded  from  the  Roman  comitia  and  magistracies.  The 
federative*  states  enjoyed  their  own  constitutions,  but  were 
bound  to  supply  the  Romans  with  tribute  and  auxiliary 
forces.  Finally,  the  subject  states  were  deprived  of  their 
internal  constitutions,  and  were  governed  by  annual  prefects 
chosen  in  Rome. 

Before  discussing  the  subject  of  the  Roman  constitution, 
we  mufet  observe  that  it  was,  like  our  own,  gradually  formed 
by  practice ;  there  was  no  single  written  code  like  those  of 

*  The  league  by  which  the  Latin  states  were  bound  (jus  Latii)  was 
more  favourable  than  that  granted  to  the  other  Italians  C  jus  Italicum.) 


THE    ROMAN   RELIGION.  39 

Athens  and  Sparta,  but  changes  were  made  whenever  they 
were  required  by  circumstances  ;  before  the  plebeians 
obtained  an  equality  of  civil  rights,  the  state  neither  com- 
manded respect  abroad,  nor  enjoyed  tranquillity  at  home. 
The  patricians  sacrificed  their  own  real  advantages,  as  well 
as  the  interests  of  their  country,  to  maintain  an  ascendancy 
as  injurious  to  themselves,  as  it  was  unjust  to  the  other  citi- 
zens. But  no  sooner  had  the  agrarian  laws  established  a 
more  equitable  distribution  of  property,  and  other  popular 
laws  opened  the  magistracy  to  merit  without  distinction  of 
rank,  than  the  city  rose  to  empire  with  unexampled  rapidity. 


CHAPTER  VL 

THE    ROMAN    RELIGION. 

1.  WE  have  shown  that  the  Romans  were,  most  probably* 
a  people  compounded  of  the  Latins,  the  Sabines,  and  the 
Tuscans ;    and  that  the  first  and  last  of  these  component 
parts  were  themselves   formed   from   Pelasgic   and   native 
tribes.     The  original  deities*  worshipped  by  the  Romans 
were  derived  from  the  joint  traditions  of  all  these  tribes ; 
but  the  religious  institutions  and  ceremonies  were  almost 
wholly  borrowed  from  the  Tuscans.     Unlike  the  Grecian 
mytholofrv.  with  which,  in  later  ages,  it  was  united,  the 
Roman  system  of  religion  had  all  the  gloom  and  mystery  of 
the  eastern  superstitions;  their  gods  were  objects  of  fear 
rather  than  love,  and  were  worshipped  more  to  avert  the  con- 
sequences of  their  anger  than  to  conciliate  their  favour.     A 
consequence  of  this  system  was,  the  institution  of  human 
sacrifices,  which  were  not  quite  disused  in  Rome  until  a 
late  period  of  the  republic. 

2.  The  religious   institutions  of  the    Romans   form  an 
essential  part  of  their  civil  government;  every  public  act, 
whether  of  legislation  or  election,  was  connected  with  cer- 
tain determined  forms,  and  thus  received  the  sanction  of  a ' 
higher  power.     Every  public  assembly  was  opened  by  the 

*  The  reader  will  find  an  exceedingly  interesting  account  of  the 
denies  peculiar.to  the  Romans,  in  Mr.  Keightley's  very  valuable  work 
on  Mythology. 


40  HISTORY   OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

magistrate  and  augurs  taking  the  auspices,  or  signs  by  which 
they  believed  that  the  will  of  the  gods  could  be  determined  ; 
and  if  any  unfavourable  omen  was  discovered,  either  then 
or  at  any  subsequent  time,  the  assembly  was  at  once  dis- 
missed. 3.  The  right  of  taking  auspices  was  long  tho 
peculiar  privilege  of  the  patricians,  and  frequently  afforded 
them  pretexts  for  evading  the  demands  of  the  plebeians ; 
when  a  popular  law  was  to  be  proposed,  it  was  easy  to  dis- 
cover some  unfavourable  omen  which  prohibited  discussion ; 
when  it  was  evident  that  the  centuries  were  about  to  annul 
some  patrician  privilege,  the  augurs  readily  saw  or  heard 
some  signal  of  divine  wrath,  which  prevented  the  vote  from 
being  completed.  It  was  on  this  account  that  the  plebeians 
would  not  consent  to  place  the  comitia  tributa  under  the 
sanction  of  the  auspices. 

4.  The  augurs  were  at  first  only  three  in  number,  but 
they  were  in  later  ages  increased  to  fifteen,  and  formed  into 
a  college.  Nothing  of  importance  was  transacted  without 
their  concurrence  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  republic,  but 
after  the  second  punic  war,  their  influence  was  considerably 
diminished.*  5.  They  derived  omens  from  five  sources :  1, 
from  celestial  phenomena,  such  as  thunder,  lightning,  comets, 
&c. ;  2,  from  the  flight  of  birds  ;  3,  fram  the  feeding  of  the 
sacred  chickens  ;  4,  from  the  appearance  of  a  beast  in  any 
unusual  place ;  5,  from  any  accident  that  occurred  unex 
pectedly. 

6.  The  usual  form  of  taking  an  augury  was  very  solemn ; 
the  augur  ascended  a  tower,  bearing  in  his  hand  a  curved 
stick  called  a  lituus.  He  turned  his  face  to  the  east,  and 
marked  out  some  distant  objects  as  the  limits  within  which 

*  The  poet  Ennius,  who  was  of  Grecian  descent,  ridiculed  very  suc- 
cessfully the  Roman  superstitions ;  the  following  fragment,  translated 
by  Dunlop,  would,  probably,  have  been  punished  as  blasphemous  in  the 
first  ages  of  the  republic : — 

For  no  Marsian  augur  (whom  fools  view  with  awe,) 
Nor  diviner,  nor  star-gazer,  care  I  a  straw ; 
The  Isis-taught  quack,  an  expounder  of  dreams, 
Is  neither  in  science  nor  art  what  he  seems ; 
Superstitious  and  shameless  they  prowl  through  our  streets, 
Some  hungry,  some  crazy,  but  all  of  them  cheats. 
Impostors,  who  vaunt  that  to  others  they'll  show 
A  path  which  themselves  neither  travel  nor  know : 
Since  they  promise  us  wealth  if  we  pay  for  their  pains, 
Let  them  take  from  that  wealth  and  bestow  what  remains. 


THE    ROMAN    RELIGION.  41 

he  \vould  make  his  observations,  and  divided  mentally  the 
enclosed  space  into  four  divisions.  He  next,  with  covered 
head,  offered  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  and  prayed  that  they 
would  vouchsafe  some  manifestation  of  their  will.  After 
these  preliminaries  he  made  his  observations  in  silence,  and 
then  announced  the  result  to  the  expecting  people. 

7.  The  Arusp'ices  were  a  Tuscan  order  of  priests,  who 
attempted  to  predict  futurity  by  observing  the  beasts  offered 
in  sacrifice.     They  formed  their  opinions  most  commonly 
from  inspecting  the  entrails,  but  there  was  no  circumstance 
too  trivial  to  escape  their  notice,  and  which  they  did  not 
believe  in  some  degree  portentous.     The  arusp'ices  were 
most  commonly  consulted  by  individuals  ;  but  their  opinions, 
as  well  as  those  of  the  augurs,  were  taken  on  all  important 
affairs  of  state.     The  arusp'ices   seem   not  to  have  been 
appointed  officially,  nor  are  they  recognised  as  a  regular 
order  of  priesthood. 

8.  The    pontiffs  and  fla'mens,  as  the  superior  priests 
were  designated,  enjoyed  great  privileges,  and  were  gene- 
rally men  of  rank.     When  the  republic  was  abolished,  the 
emperors  assumed  the  office  of  pontifex  maximus,  or  chief 
pontiff,  deeming  its  powers  too  extensive  to  be  entrusted  to 
a  subject. 

9.  The  institution  of  vestal  virgins  was  older  than  the 
city  itself,  and  was  regarded  by  the  Romans  as  the  most 
sacred  part  of  their  religious  system.     In  the  time  of  Numa 
there  were  but  four,  but  two  more  were  added  by  Tarquin; 
probably  the  addition  made  by  Tarquin  was  to  give  the 
tribe  of  the  Lu'ceres  a  share  in  this  important  priesthood. 
The  duty  of  the  vestal  virgins  was  to  keep  the  sacred  fire 
that  burned  on  the  altar  of  Vesta  from  being  extinguished ; 
and  to  preserve  a  certain  sacred  pledge  on  which  the  very 
existence  of  Rome  was  supposed  to  depend.     What  this 
pledge  was  we  have  no  means  of  discovering ;  some  sup- 
pose that  it  was  the  Trojan  Palla'dium,  others,  with  more 
probability,  some  traditional  mystery  brought  by  the  Pelas'gi 
from  Samothrace. 

10.  The  privileges  conceded  to  the  vestals  were  very 
great;  they  had  the  most  honourable  seats  at  public  games 
and  festivals ;  they  were  attended  by  a  lictor  with  fasces  like 
the  magistrates ;  they  were  provided  with  chariots  when  they 
required  them ;  and  they  possessed  the  power  of  pardoning 
any  criminal  whom  they  met  on  the  way  to  execution,  if 
they  declared  that  the  meeting  was  accidental.     The  magis 

D2 


42  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION*. 

trates  were  obliged  to  salute  them  as  they  passed,  and  the 
fasces  of  the  consul  were  lowered  to  do  them  reverence. 
To  withhold  from  them  marks  of  respect  subjected  the 
offender  to  public  odium  ;  a  personal  insult  was  capitally 
punished.  They  possessed  the  exclusive  privilege  of  being 
buried  within  the  city  ;  an  honour  which  the  Romans  rarely 
extended  to  others. 

11.  The  vestals  were  bound  by  a  vow  of  perpetual  vir- 
ginity, and  a  violation  of  this  oath  was  cruelly  punished. 
The  unfortunate  offender  was  buried  alive  in  a  vault  con- 
structed beneath  the  Fo'rum  by  the  elder  Tarquin.     The 
terror  of  such  a  dreadful  fate  had  the  desired  effect ;  there 
were  only  eighteen  instances  of  incontinence  among  the 
ves-tals,  during  the  space  of  a  thousand  years. 

12.  The  mixture  of  religion  with  civil  polity,  gave  per- 
manence and  stability  to  the  Roman  institutions  ;  notwith- 
standing all  the  changes  and  revolutions  in  the  government 
the  old  forms  were  preserved ;  and  thus,  though  the  city  was 
taken  by  Porsenna,  and  burned  by  the  Gauls,  the  Roman 
constitution  survived  the  ruin,  and  was  again  restored  to  its 
pristine  vigour. 

13.  The  Romans  always  adopted  the  gods  of  the  con- 
quered nations,  and,  consequently,  when  their  empire  became 
very  extensive,  the  number  of  deities  was  absurdly  excessive, 
and  the  variety  of  religious  worship  perfectly  ridiculous. 
The  rulers  of  the  world  wanted  the  taste  and  ingenuity  of 
the  lively  Greeks,  who  accommodated  every  religious  system 
to  their  own,  and  from  some  real  or  fancied  resemblance, 
identified  the  gods  of  Olym'pus  with  other  nations.     The 
Romans  never  used  this  process  of  assimilation,  and,  con- 
sequently, introduced  so  much  confusion  into  their  mytho- 
logy, that  philosophers  rejected  the  entire  system.     This 
circumstance  greatly  facilitated  the  progress  of  Christianity, 
whose  beautiful  simplicity  furnished  a  powerful  contrast  to 
the  confused  and  cumbrous  mass  of  divinities,  worshipped 
in  the  time  of  the  emperors. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  did  the  religion  of  the  Romans  differ  from  that  of  the  Greeks  * 

2.  Was  the  Roman  religion  connected  with  the  government  ? 

3.  How  was  the  right  of  taking  the  auspices  abused  1 
4  Who  were  the  augurs  * 


THE  ROMAN  ARMY  AND  NAVY.  43 

6.  From  what  did  the  augurs  take  omens  ? 

fi.  What  were  the  forms  used  in  taking  the  auspices  ! 

7.  Who  were  the  aruspiccs'f 

8.  What  other  priests  had  the  Romans  ? 

9.  What  was  the  duty  of  the  vestal  virgins '; 

10.  Did  the  vestals  enjoy  great  privileges? 

1 1 .  How  were  the  vestals  punished  for  a  breach  of  their  vows  ? 

1 2.  Why  was  the  Roman  constitution  very  permanent  ? 

13.  Whence  arose  the  confusion  in  the  religious  system  of  the  Romans? 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  ROMAN  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

1.  IT  has  been  frequently  remarked  by  ancient  writers, 
that  the  strength  of  a  free  state  consists  in  its  infantry  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  when  the  infantry  in  a  state  become 
more  valuable  than  the  cavalry,  the  power  of  the  aristocracy 
is  diminished,  and  equal  rights  can  no  longer  be  withheld 
from  the  people.  "  The  employment  of  mercenary  soldiers 
in  modern  times  renders  these  observations  no  longer  appli- 
cable ;  but  in  the  military  states  of  antiquity,  where  the 
citizens  themselves  served  as  soldiers,  there  are  innumerable 
examples  of  this  mutual  connection  between  political  and 
military  systems.  It  is  further  illustrated  in  the  history  of 
the  middle  ages ;  for  we  can  unquestionably  trace  the  origin 
of  free  institutions  in  Europe  to  the  time  when  the  hardy 
infantry  of  the  commons  were  first  found  able  to  resist  the 
charges  of  the  brilliant  chivalry  of  the  nobles.  2. Rome  was, 
from  the  very  commencement,  a  military  state  ;  as  with  the 
Spartans,  all  their  civil  institutions  had  a  direct  reference  to 
warlike  affairs  ;  their  public  assemblies  were  marshalled  like 
armies ;  the  order  of  their  line  of  battle  was  regulated  by 
the  distinction  of  classes  in  the  state.  It  is,  therefore, 
natural  to  conclude,  that  the  tactics  of  the  Roman  armies 
underwent  important  changes  when  the  revolutions  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  chapters  were  effected,  though  we 
cannot  trace  the  alterations  with  precision,  because  no  his- 
torians appeared  until  the  military  system  of  the  Romans 
had  been  brought  to  perfection. 

3.  The  strength  of  the  Tuscans  consisted  principally  in 
their  cavalry ;  and  if  we  judge  from  the  importance  attri- 
buted to  the  equestrian  rank  in  the  earliest  ages,  we  may 


44  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

suppose  that  the  early  Romans  esteemed  this  force  equally 
valuable.  It  was  to  Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  the  great  patron  of 
the  commonalty,  that  the  Romans  were  indebted  for  the 
formation  of  a  body  of  infantry,  which,  after  the  lapse  of 
centuries,  received  so  many  improvements  that  it  became 
invincible. 

4.  The  ancient  battle  array  of  the  Greeks  was  the  phalanx ; 
the  troops  were  drawn  up  in  close  column,  the  best  armed 
being  in  front.     The  improvements  made  in  this  system  of 
tactics  by  Philip,  are  recorded  in  Grecian  history;  they 
chiefly  consisted  in  making  the  evolutions  of  the  entire  body 
more  manageable,  and  counteracting  the  difficulties  which 
attended  the  motions  of  this  cumbrous  mass. 

5.  The  Romans  originally  used  the  phalanx ;    and  the 
lines  were  formed  according  to  the  classes  determined  by  the 
centuries.  Those  who  were  sufficiently  Avealthy  to  purchase 
a  full  suit  of  armour,  formed  the  front  ranks ;   those  who 
could  only  purchase  a  portion  of  the  defensive  weapons, 
filled  the  centre ;  and  the  rear  was  formed  by  the  poorer 
classes,  who  scarcely  required  any  armour,  being  protected 
by  the  lines  in  front.    From  this  explanation,  it  is  easy  to  see 
why,  in  the  constitution  of  the  centuries  by  Servius  Tullius, 
the  first  class  were  perfectly  covered  with  mail,  the  second 
had  helmets  and  breast-plates  but  no  protection  for  the  body, 
the   third,   neither  a  coat  of  mail,  nor  greaves.     6.   The 
defects  of  this  system  are  sufficiently  obvious  ;  an  unex- 
pected  attack  on   the  flanks,  the   breaking  of  the  line  by 
rugged  and  uneven  ground,  and  a  thousand  similar  accidents, 
exposed  the  unprotected  portions  of  the  army  to  destruction ; 
besides,  a  line  with  files  ten  deep  Avas  necessarily  slow  in 
its  movements  and  evolutions.    Another  and  not  less  impor- 
tant defect  was,  that  the  whole  should  act  together ;   and, 
consequently,  there  were  few  opportunities  for  the  display 
of  individual  bravery. 

7.  It  is  not  certainly  known  who  was  the    great  com- 
mander that  substituted  the  living  body  of  the  Roman  legion 
for  this  inanimate  mass ;  but  there  is  some  reason  to  believe 
that  this  wondrous  improvement  was  effected  by  Camil'lus. 
Every  legion  was  in  itself  an  army,  combining  the  advan- 
tages of  every  variety  of  weapon,  with  the  absolute  per- 
tection  of  a  military  division. 

8.  The  legion  consisted  of  three  lines  or  battalions  ;  the 
Hasta'tii  the  Prin'cipes,  and  the  Tria'rii;  there  were  be- 
sides two  classes,  which  we  may  likewise  call  battalions. 


THE  ROMAN  ARMY  AND  NAVY.  45 

the  Rora'rii,  or  Vtlites,  consisting  of  light  armed  troops ; 
and  the  jiccen'si,  or  supernumeraries,  who  were  ready  to 
supply  the  place  of  those  that  fell.  Each  of  the  two  first 
battalions  contained  fifteen  manip'uli^  consisting  of  sixty 
privates,  commanded  by  two  centurions,  and  having  each  a 
separate  standard  (vexil'lum)  borne  by  one  of  the  privates 
called  vexilla'rius ;  the  manip'uli  in  the  other  battalions 
were  fewer  in  number,  but  contained  a  greater  portion  of 
men ;  so  that,  in  round  numbers,  nine  hundred  men  may  be 
allowed  to  each  battalion,  exclusive  of  officers.  If  the  offi- 
cers and  the  troop  of  three  hundred  cavalry  be  taken  into 
account,  we  shall  find  that  the  legion,  as  originally  consti- 
tuted, contained  about  five  thousand  men.  The  Romans, 
however,  did  not  always  observe  these  exact  proportions, 
and  the  number  of  soldiers  in  a  legion  varied  at  different 
times  of  their  history.* 

9.  A  cohort  was    formed  by  taking   a   manipulus  from 
each  of  the  battalions  ;  more  frequently  two  manipuli  were 
taken,  and  the  cohort  then  contained  six  hundred  men.    The 
cavalry  were  divided  into  tur'mse,  consisting  each  of  thirty 
men. 

10.  A  battle  was  usually  commenced  by  the  light  troops, 
who  skirmished  with  missile  weapons  ;  the  hasta'ti  then  ad- 
vanced to  the  charge,  and  if  defeated,  fell  back  on  the  prin'- 
cipes ;    if  the  enemy  proved  still  superior,  the  two   front 
lines  retired  to  the  ranks  of  the  tria'rii,  which  being  com- 
posed of  veteran  troops,  generally  turned  the  scale.     But 
this   order  was  not  always  observed ;  the  number  of  divi- 
sions in  the  legion  made  it  extremely  flexible,  and  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  could  always  adapt  the  form  of  his  line  to 
circumstances. 

11.  The  levies  of  troops  were   made  in  the   Cam'pus 
Mar'tius,  by  the  tribunas  appointed  to  command  the  legions. 
The  tribes  which  were  to  supply  soldiers  were  determined 
by  lot,  and  as  each  came  forward,  the  tribunes,  in  their  turn, 
selected  such  as  seemed  best  fitted  for  war.     Four  legions 
was  most  commonly  the  number  in  an  army.     When  the 
selected  individuals  had  been  enrolled  as  soldiers,  one  was 
chosen  from  each  legion  to  take  the  military  oath  of  obe- 
dience to  the  generals ;  the  other  soldiers  swore  in  succes- 
sion, to  observe  the  oath  taken  by  their  foreman. 

*  This  is  virtually  the  same  account  as  that  given  by  Niebuhr,  but 
he  excludes  the  accensi  and  cavalry  from  his  computation,  which  bringt 
down  the  amount  to  3600  soldiers. 


46  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

12.  Such  was  the  sac-redness  of  this  obligation,  that  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  political  contests  by  which  the  city  was 
distracted,  the  soldiers,  though  eager  to  secure  the  freedom 
of  their  country,  would  not  attempt  to  gain  it  by  mutiny 
against  their  commanders.     On  this  account  the  senate  fre- 
quently declared  war,  and  ordered  a  levy  as  an  expedient  to 
prevent  the  enactment  of  a  popular  law,  and  were  of  course 
opposed  by  the  tribunes  of  the  people. 

13.  There  was  no  part  of  the  Roman  discipline  more  ad- 
mirable than  their  form  of  encampment.     No  matter  how 
fatigued   the   soldiers  might  be  by  a  long  march,  or  how 
harassed  by  a  tedious  battle,  the  camp  was  regularly  mea- 
sured out  and  fortified  by  a  rampart  and  ditch,  before  any 
one  sought  sleep  or  refreshment.     Careful  watch  was  kept 
during  the  night,  and  frequent  picquets  sent  out  to  guard 
against  a  surprise,  and  to  see  that  the  sentinels  were  vigi- 
lant.    As   the  arrangement  in  every  camp  was  the  same, 
every  soldier  knew  his  exact  position,  and  if  an  alarm  oc- 
curred, could  easily  find  the  rallying  point  of  his  division. 
To  this  excellent  system  Polyb'ius  attributes  the  superiority 
of  the  Romans  over  the  Greeks ;  for  the  latter  scarcely  ever 
fortified  their  camp,  but  chose  some  place  naturally  strong, 
and  did  not  keep  their  ranks  distinct. 

14.  The  military  age  extended  from  the  sixteenth  to  the 
forty-sixth  year ;  and  under  the  old  constitution  no  one  could 
hold  a  civic  office  who  had  not  served  ten  campaigns.    The 
horsemen  were  considered  free  after  serving  through  ten 
campaigns,    but   the    foot   had   to   remain   during  twenty. 
Those  who  had  served  out  their  required  time  were  free  for 
the  rest  of  their  lives,  unless  the  city  was  attacked,  when  all 
under  the  age  of  sixty  were  obliged  to  arm  in  its  defence. 

15.  In  the  early  ages,  when  wars  were  begun  and  ended 
in  a  few  days,  the  soldiers  received  no  pay ;  but  when  the 
conquest  of  distant  countries  became  the  object  of  Roman 
ambition,  it  became  necessary  to  provide  for  the  pay  and 
support  of  the  army.     This  office  was  given  to  the  quaes- 
tors, who  were  generally  chosen  from  the  younger  nobility, 
and  were  thus  prepared  for  the  higher  magistracies  by  ac- 
quiring a  practical  acquaintance  with  finance. 

16.  The  soldiers  were  subject  to  penalties  of  life  and  limb 
at  the  discretion  of  the  commander-in-chief,  without  the  in- 
tervention of  a  court-martial ;  but  it  deserves  to  be  recorded 
that  this  power  was  rarely  abused.     17.  There  were  seve- 
ral species  of  rewards  to  excite  emulation ;  the  most  honour- 


THE  ROMAN  ARMY  AND  NAVY.  47 

able  were,  the  civic  crown  of  gold  to  him  who  had  saved 
the  life  of  a  citizen ;  the  mural  crown  to  him  who  had  first 
scaled  the  wall  of  a  besieged  town  ;  a  gilt  spear  to  him  who 
had  severely  wounded  an  enemy ;  but  he  who  had  slain 
and  spoiled  his  foe,  received,  if  a  horseman,  an  ornamental 
trapping  ;  if  a  foot  soldier,  a  goblet. 

18.  The  lower  classes  of  the  centuries  were  excused  from 
serving  in  the  army,  except  on  dangerous  emergencies ;  but 
they  supplied  sailors  to  the  navy.  We  learn  from  a  docu- 
ment preserved  by  Polyb'ius,  that  the  Romans  were  a  naval 
power  at  a  very  early  age.  19.  This  interesting  record  is 
the  copy  of  a  treaty  concluded  with  the  Carthaginians,  in 
the  year  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings.  It  is  not  men- 
tioned by  the  Roman  historians,  because  it  decisively  es- 
tablishes a  fact  which  they  studiously  labour  to  conceal, 
that  is,  the  weakness  and  decline  of  the  Roman  power  dur- 
ing the  two  centuries  that  followed  the  abolition  of  royalty, 
when  the  power  of  the  state  was  monopolized  by  a  vile 
aristocracy.  In  this  treaty  Rome  negociates  for  the  cities 
of  La'tium,  as  her  dependencies,  just  as  Carthage  does  for 
her  subject  colonies.  But  in  the  course  of  the  following 
century,  Rome  lost  her  supremacy  over  the  Latin  cities,  and 
being  thus  nearly  excluded  from  the  coast,  her  navy  was 
ruined. 

t  20.  At  the  commencement  of  the  first  Punic  war,  the  Ro- 
mans once  more  began  to  prepare  a  fleet,  and  luckily  ob- 
tained an  excellent  model  in  a  Carthaginian  ship  that  had 
been  driven  ashore  in  a  storm.  21.  The  vessels  used  for 
war,  were  either  long  ships  or  banked  galleys  ;  the  former 
were  not  much  used  in  the  Punic  wars,  the  latter  being 
found  more  convenient.  The  rowers  of  these  sat  on  banks 
or  benches,  rising  one  above  the  other,  like  stairs ;  and 
from  the  number  of  these  benches,  the  galleys  derived  their 
names  ;  that  which  had  three  rows  of  benches  was  called  a 
trireme;  that  which  had  four,  a  quadrireme ;  and  that 
which  had  five,  a  quinquireme.  Some  vessels  had  turrets 
erected  in  them  for  soldiers  and  warlike  engines ;  others 
had  sharp  prows  covered  with  brass,  for  the  purpose  of 
dashing  against  and  sinking  their  enemies. 

22.  The  naval  tactics  of  the  ancients  were  very  simple ; 
the  ships  closed  very  early,  and  the  battle  became  a  contest 
between  single  vessels.  It  was  on  this  account  that  tlie 
personal  valour  of  the  Romans  proved  more  than  a  match 


48  HISTORY   OF    ROME — INTRODUCTION. 

for  the  naval  skill  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  enabled  them 
to  add  the  empire  of  the  sea  to  that  of  the  land. 

23.  Before  concluding  this  chapter,  we  must  notice  the 
triumphal  processions  granted  to  victorious  commanders. 
Of  these  there  are  two  kinds  ;  the  lesser  triumph,  called  an 
ovation,*  and  the  greater,  called,  emphatically,  the  triumph. 
In  the  former,  the  victorious  general  entered  the  city  on 
foot,  wearing  a  crown  of  myrtle  ;  in  the  latter,  he  was  borne 
in  a  chariot,  and  wo/e  a  crown  of  laurel.  The  ovation  was 
granted  to  such  generals  as  had  averted  a  threatened  war,  or 
gained  some  great  advantage  without  inflicting  great  loss  on 
the  enemy.  The  triumph  was  allowed  only  to  those  who 
had  gained  some  signal  victory,  which  decided  the  fate  of  a 
protracted  war.  The  following  description,  extracted  from 
Plutarch,  of  the  great  triumph  granted  to  Paulus  uEmilius, 
for  his  glorious  termination  of  the  Macedonian  war,  will 
give  the  reader  an  adequate  idea  of  the  splendour  displayed 
by  the  Romans  on  these  festive  occasions. 

The  people  erected  scaffolds  in  the  forum  and  circus,  and 
all  other  parts  of  the  city  where  they  could  best  behold  the 
pomp.  The  spectators  were  clad  in  white  garments ;  all 
the  temples  were  open,  and  full  of  garlands  and  perfumes; 
and  the  ways  cleared  and  cleansed  by  a  great  many  officers, 
who  drove  away  such  as  thronged  the  passage,  or  straggled 
up  and  down. 

The  triumph  lasted  three  days ;  on  the  first,  which  was 
scarce  long  enough  for  the  sight,  were  to  be  seen  the  statues, 
pictures,  and  images  of  an  extraordinary  size,  which  were 
taken  from  the  enemy,  drawn  upon  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
chariots.  On  the  second  was  carried,  in  a  great  many  wains, 
the  fairest  and  richest  armour  of  the  Macedonians,  both  of 
brass  and  steel,  all  newly  furbished  and  glittering:  which, 
although  piled  up  with  the  greatest  art  and  order,  yet  seemed 
to  be  tumbled  on  heaps  carelessly  and  by  chance  ;  helmets 
were  thrown  on  shields,  coats  of  mail  upon  greaves  ;  Cretan 
targets  and  Thracian  bucklers,  and  quivers  of  arrows,  lay 
huddled  among  the  horses'  bits ;  and  through  these  appeared 
the  points  of  naked  swords,  intermixed  with  long  spears. 
All  these  arms  were  tied  together  with  such  a  just  liberty, 
that  they  knocked  against  one  another  as  they  were  drawn 

*  From  ovis,  a  sheep,  the  animal  on  this  occasion  offered  in  sacrifice ; 
in  the  greater  triumph  the  victim  was  a  milk-white  bull  hung  over  with 
garlands,  and  having  his  horns  tipped  with  gold. 


THE  ROMAN  ARMY  AND  NAVY.  49 

along,  and  made  a  harsh  and  terrible  noise,  so  that  the  very 
spoils  of  the  conquered  could  not  be  beheld  without  dread. 
After  these  wagons  loaded  with  armour,  there  followed  three 
thousand  men,  who  carried  the  silver  that  was  coined,  in 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  vessels,  each  of  which  weighed  three 
talents,  and  was  carried  by  four  men.  Others  brought  silver 
bowls,  and  goblets,  and  cups,  all  disposed  in  such  order  as 
to  make  the  best  show,  and  all  valuable,  as  well  for  their 
magnitude  as  the  thickness  of  their  engraved  work.  On 
the  third  day,  early  in  the  morning,  first  came  the  trumpet- 
ers, who  did  not  sound  as  they  were  wont  in  a  procession 
or  solemn  entry,  but  such  a  charge  as  the  Romans  use  when 
they  encourage  their  soldiers  to  fight.  Next  followed  young 
men,  girt  about  with  girdles  curiously  wrought,  who  led  to 
the  sacrifice  one  hundred  and  twenty  stalled  oxen,  with  their 
horns  gilded,  and  their  heads  adorned  with  ribbons  and  gar- 
lands, and  with  these  were  boys  that  carried  dishes  of  silver 
and  gold.  After  these  was  brought  the  gold  coin,  which 
was  divided  into  vessels  that  weighed  three  talents  each, 
similar  to  those  that  contained  the  silver ;  they  were  in 
number  fourscore,  wanting  three.  These  were  followed  by 
those  that  brought  the  consecrated  bowl  which  Emil'ius 
caused  io  be  made,  that  weighed  ten  talents,  and  was  adorned 
with  precious  stones.  Then  were  exposed  to  view  the  cups 
of  Antig'onus  and  Seleu'cus,  and  such  as  were  made  after 
the  fashion  invented  by  The'ricles,  and  all  the  gold  plate 
that  was  used  at  Per'seus's  table.  Next  to  these  came  Per'- 
seus's  chariot,  in  which  his  armour  was  placed,  and  on 
that  his  diadem.  After  a  little  intermission  the  king's 
children  were  led  captives,  and  with  them  a  train  of  nurses, 
masters,  and  governors,  who  all  wept,  and  stretched  forth 
their  hands  to  the  spectators,  and  taught  the  little  infants  to 
beg  and  intreat  their  compassion.  There  were  two  sons  and 
a  daughter,  who,  by  reason  of  their  tender  age,  were  altogether 
insensible  of  the  greatness  of  their  misery;  which  insensibility 
of  their  condition  rendered  it  much  more  deplorable,  inso- 
much that  Per'seus  himself  was  scarce  regarded  as  he  went 
along,  whilst  pity  had  fixed  the  eyes  of  the  Romans  upon 
the  infants,  and  many  of  them  could  not  forbear  tears ;  all 
beheld  the  sight  with  a  mixture  of  sorrow  and  joy  until 
the  children  were  past.  After  his  children  and  attendants 
came  Per'seus  himself,  clad  in  black,  and  wearing  slippers 
after  the  fashion  of  his  country;  he  looked  like  one  alto- 
gether astonished,  and  deprived  of  reason,  through  the 
E 


50  HISTORY   OF    ROME — INTRODUCTION. 

greatness  of  his  misfortune.  Next  followed  a  great  com- 
pany of  his  friends  and  familiars,  whose  countenances  were 
disfigured  with  grief,  and  who  testified  to  all  that  beheld 
them,  by  their  tears  and  their  continual  looking  upon  Per'- 
seus,  that  it  was  his  hard  fortune  they  so  much  lamented, 
and  that  they  were  regardless  of  their  own.  After  these  were 
carried  four  hundred  crowns  of  gold,  sent  from  the  cities  by 
their  respective  ambassadors  to  Emil'ius,  as  a  reward  due  to 
his  valour.  Then  he  himself  came,  seated  on  a  chariot 
magnificently  adorned,  (a  man  worthy  to  be  beheld  even 
without  these  ensigns  of  power)  clad  in  a  garland  of  purple 
interwoven  with  gold,  and  with  a  laurel  branch  in  his  right 
hand.  All  the  army  in  like  manner,  with  boughs  of  laurel 
in  their  hands,  and  divided  into  bands  and  companies,  fol- 
lowed the  chariot  of  their  commander ;  some  singing  odes 
according  to  the  usual  custom,  mingled  with  raillery ;  others 
songs  of  triumph  and  the  praises  of  Emil'ius's  deeds,  who 
was  admired  and  accounted  happy  by  all  men,  yet  unenvied 
by  every  one  that  was  good. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  political  change  has  frequently  resulted  from  impnAed  mili- 

tary tactics  1 

2.  Was  Rome  a  military  state  1 

3.  Why  are  we  led  to  conclude  that  the  Romans  considered  cavalry  an 

important  force  1 

4.  By  whom  was  the  phalanx  instituted  ? 

5.  How  was  the  phalanx  formed  1 

6.  What  were  the  defects  of  the  phalanx  1 

7.  By  whom  was  the  legion  substituted  for  the  phalanx  ? 

8.  Of  what  troops  was  a  legion  composed  1 

9.  What  was  a  cohort  1 

10.  What  was  the  Roman  form  of  battle  ? 

1 1 .  In  what  manner  was  an  army  levied  1 

12.  How  was  the  sanctity  of  the  military  oath  proved? 

13.  What  advantages  resulted  from  the  Roman  form  of  encampment? 

14.  How  long  was  the  citizens  liable  to  be  called  upon  as  soldiers  I 

15.  How  was  the  army  paid  1 

16.  What  power  had  the  general1 

17.  On  whit  occasion  did  the  soldiers  receive  rewards? 

1 8.  How  was  the  navy  supplied  with  sailors  1 

19.  What  fact  concealed  by  the  Roman  historians  is  established  by 

Polybius? 

20.  How  did  the  Romans  furm  a  fleet? 


ROMAN    LAW.  51 


21.  What  were  the  several  kinds  of  ships? 

22.  What  naval  tactics  did  the  Romans  use  7 

23.  How  did  an  ovation  differ  from  a  triumph  1 

24.  Can  you  give  a  general  description  of  a  triumph  7 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ROMAN  LAW. FINANCE. 

1.  IN  the  early  stages  of  society,  little  difficulty  is  felt  in 
providing'  for  the  administration  of  justice,  because  the  sub- 
jects of  controversy  are  plain  and  simple,  such  as  any  man 
of  common  sense  may  determine ;  but  as  civilization  ad- 
vances, the  relations  between  men  become  more  complicated, 
property  assumes  innumerable  forms,  and  the  determination 
of  questions  resulting  from  these  changes,  becomes  a  matter 
of  no  ordinary  difficulty.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  republic, 
the  consuls  were  the  judges  in  civil  and  criminal  matters,  as 
the  kings  had  previously  been  ;*  but  as  the  state  increased, 
a  new  class  of  magistrates,  called  prstors,  was  appointed  to 
preside  in  the  courts  of  law.  Until  the  age  of  the  decem- 
virs, there  was  no  written  code  to  regulate  their  decisions  ; 
and  even  after  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  had  been  esta- 
blished, there  was  no  perfect  system  of  law,  for  the  enact- 
ments in  that  code  were  brief,  and  only  asserted  a  few 
leading  principles.  2.  The  Roman  judges  did  not,  however, 
decide  altogether  according  to  their  own  caprice ;  they  were 
bound  to  regard  the  principles  that  had  been  established  by 
the  decisions  of  former  judges  ;  and  consequently,  a  system 
of  law  was  formed  similar  to  tire  common  law  of  England, 
founded  on  precedent  and  analogy.  In  the  later  ages  of  the 
empire,  the  number  of  law-books  and  records  became  so 
enormous,  that  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  determine  the 
law  with  accuracy,  and  the  contradictory  decisions  made  at 
different  periods,  greatly  increased  the  uncertainty.  To 
remedy  this  evil,  the  emperor  Justinian  caused  the  entire  to 
be  digested  into  a  uniform  system,  and  his  code  still  forma 
the  basis  of  the  civil  law  in  Europe. 

"  Niebuhr,  however,  is  of  opinion,  that  judicial  officers  were  elected 
by  the  "  comitia  curiata,"  from  the  earliest  ages. 


53  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

3.  The  trials  in  courts  refer  either  to  the  affairs  of  the 
state,  or  to  the  persons  or  properties  of  individuals,  and  are 
called  state,  criminal,  or  civil  trials.     The  two  former  are 
the  most  important  in  regard  to  history. 

4.  The  division  of  the  Roman  people  into  two  nations, 
made  the  classification  of  state  offences  very  difficult.     In 
general,  the  council  of  the  patricians  judged  any  plebeian 
who  was  accused  of  conspiring  against  their  order ;  and  the 
plebeians  on  the  other  hand,  brought  a  patrician  accused  of 
having  violated  their  privileges  before  their  own  tribunal. 

5.  Disobedience  to  the  commands  of  the  chief  magistrate  was 
punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  from  his  sentence 
there  was  no  appeal ;   but  if  the  consul  wished  to  punish 
any  person  by  stripes  or  death,  the  condemned  man  had 
the  right  of  appealing  to  the  general  assembly  of  his  peers.* 

6.  To  prevent  usurpation,  it  was  established  that  every  per- 
son who  exercised  an  authority  not  conferred  on  him  by  the 
people,  should  be  devoted  as  a  victim  to  the  gods.t     This 
was  at  once  a  sentence  of  outlawry  and  excommunication : 
the  criminal  might  be  slain  by  any  person  with  impunity, 
and   all   connection   with  him  was   shunned   as   pollution. 

7.  No  magistrate  could  legally  be  brought  to  trial  during  the 
continuance  of  his  office,  but  when  his  time  was  expired, 
he  could  be  accused  before  the  general  assembly  of  the 
people,  if  he  had  transgressed  the  legal  limits  of  his  author- 
ity.    The   punishment  in  this  case  was  banishment ;   the 
form  of  the  sentence  declared  that  the  criminal  "  should  be 
deprived  of  fire  and  water ;"  that  is,  the  citizens  were  pro- 
hibited from  supplying  him  with  the  ordinary  necessaries 
of  life. 

8.  In  all  criminal  trials,  and  in  all  cases  where  damages 
were  sought  to  be  recovered  for  wrongs  or  injuries,  the 
praetor  impanelled  a  jury,  but  the  number  of  which  it  was 

*  This  privilege  was  conceded  to  the  plebeians  by  the  Valerian  law, 
bat  must  have  been  possessed  by  the  patricians  from  the  earliest  times ; 
for  Horatius,  when  condemned  for  the  murder  of  his  sister,  in  the  reign 
of  Tullus  Hostilius,  escaped  by  appealing  to  the  comitia  curiata.  The 
Valerian  law  had  no  sanction,  that  is,  no  penalty  was  annexed  to  its 
transgression;  and  during  the  two  centuries  of  patrician  usurpation  and 
tyranny,  was  frequently  and  flagrantly  violated.  On  this  account  the 
law,  though  never  repealed,  was  frequently  re-enacted. 

•f-  The  formula  "  to  devote  his  head  to  the  gods,"  used  to  express  the 
sentence  of  capital  punishment,  was  derived  from  the  human  sacrifices 
anciently  used  in  Rome ;  probably,  because  criminals  were  usually 
selected  for  these  sanguinary  offerings. 


ROMAN    LAW.  53 

to  consist  seems  to  have  been  left  to  his  discretion.  The 
jurors  were  called  ju'dices,  and  the  opinion  of  the  majority 
decided  the  verdict.  Where  the  votes  were  equal,  the  tra- 
verser  or  defendant  escaped ;  and  when  half  the  jury  as- 
sessed damages  at  one  amount,  and  half  at  another,  the  de- 
fendant paid  only  the  lesser  sum.  In  disputes  about  pro- 
perty, the  praetor  seldom  called  for  the  assistance  of  a  jury. 

9.  The  general  form  of  all  trials  was  the  same ;  the  pro- 
secutor or  plaintiff  made  his  complaint,  and  the  defendant 
was  compelled  either  to  find  sufficient  bail,  or  to  go  into 
prison  until  the  day  of  trial.     On  the  appointed  day,  the 
plaintiff,  or  his  advocate,  stated  his  case,  and  proceeded  to 
establish  it  by  evidence  ;  the  defendant  replied ;  and  the 
jury  then  gave  their  verdict  by  ballot. 

10.  In  cases  tried  before  the  general  assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple, it  was  allowed  to  make  use  of  artifices  in  order  to  con- 
ciliate the  popular  favour.    The  accused  and  his  friends  put 
on  mourning  robes  to  excite  pity ;  they  went  into  the  most 
public  places  and  took  every  opportunity  of  showing  their 
respect  for  popular  power.     When  Cicero  was  accused  by 
Clo'dius  for  having  illegally  put  to  death  the  associates  of 
Cataline,  the  entire  senatorian  rank  changed  their  robes  to 
show  the  deep  interest  they  felt  in  his  fate.     At  these  great 
trials,  the  noblest  specimens  of  forensic   eloquence  were 
displayed  by  the  advocates  of  the  accuser  and  the  accused ; 
but  the  decisions  were  usually  more  in  accordance  with  the 
spirit  of  party  than  strict  justice. 

1 1 .  The  accused,  however,  might  escape,  if  he  could  pre- 
vail on  any  of  the  tribunes  to  interpose  in  his  behalf,  or  the 
accuser  to  relinquish  his  charge  ;  if  unfavourable  omens  ap- 
peared during  the  trial,  it  was  usually  adjourned,  or  some- 
times the  accusation  withdrawn ;  and  up  to  the  very  mo- 
ment of  the  commencement  of  the  trial,  the  criminal  had  the 
option  of  escaping  a  heavier  penalty  by  going  into  volun- 
tary exile. 

12.  The  punishments  to  which  state  criminals  were  sen- 
tenced, were  usually,  in  capital  cases,  precipitation  from  the 
Tarpeian  rock,  beheading,  or  strangulation  in  prison ;  when 
life  was  spared,  the  penalties  were  either  exile  or  fine.    Un- 
der  the    emperors    severer  punishments  were    introduced, 
such  as  exposure  to  wild  beasts,  or  burning  alive ;  and  tor- 
ture, which,  under  the  republic,  could  not  be  inflicted  on 
free  citizens,  was  exercised  unsparingly. 

13.  The  punishment  of  parricides  was  curious-  the  eri 

E  2 


54  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

minal  having  been  beaten  with  rods,  was  sown  up  in  a  sack, 
together  with  a  serpent,  an  ape,  and  a  cock,  and  thrown 
either  into  the  sea  or  a  river,  as  if  even  the  inanimate  car- 
case of  such  a  wretch  would  pollute  the  earth. 

14.  Masters  had  an  absolute  authority  over  their  slaves, 
extending  to  life  or  limb ;  and  in  the  earlier  ages  patrons 
had  similar  power  over  their  clients.     The   condition  of 
slaves  in  Rome  was  most  miserable,  especially  in  the  later 
ages  ;  they  were  subject  to  the  most  excruciating  tortures, 
and  when  capitally  punished,  were  generally  crucified.    Ex- 
cept in  this  single  particular,  the  Roman  criminal  code  was 
very  lenient  and  sparing  of  human  life.     This  was  chiefly 
owing  to  the  exertions  of  the  plebeians,  for  the  patricians 
always  patronized  a  more  sanguinary  policy ;  and  could  do 
so  the  more  easily,  as  the  aristocracy  retained  their  mono- 
poly of  the  administration  of  justice  much  longer  than  that 
of  civil  government. 

15.  The  Roman  system  of  finance  Avas  at  first  very  sim- 
ple, the  public  revenue  being  derived  from  a  land-tax  on 
Quiritary  property,*  and  the  tithes  of  the  public  lands ;  but 
after  the   conquest  of  Macedon,  the   revenues   from   other 
sources  were  so  abundant,  that  tribute  was  no  longer  de- 
manded from  Roman  citizens,     These  sources  were : — 

1.  The  tribute  of  the  allies,  which  was  a  property  tax, 
differing  in  different  places  according  to  the  terms  of  their 
league. 

2.  The  tribute  of  the  provinces,  which  was  both  a  pro- 
perty and  poll-tax. 

8.  Revenue  of  the  national  domains  leased  out  by  the 
censors. 

4.  Revenue  from  the  mines,  especially  from  the  Spanish 
silver-mines. 

5.  Duties  on  imports  and  exports.     And, 

6.  A  duty  on  enfranchised  slaves. 

The  receipts  were  all  paid  into  the  national  treasury,  and 
the  senate  had  the  uncontrolled  direction  of  the  general  ex- 
penditure, as  well  as  the  regulation  of  the  amount  of  imposts. 
The  officers  employed  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  revenue, 
were  the  quaestors,  chosen  annually,  and  under  them  the 
scribes,  who  held  their  situations  for  life.  Those  who 

*  The  lands  absolutely  assigned  to  the  plebeians  free  from  rent,  were 
the  most  remarkable  species  of  Quiritary  property.  It  was  so  called 
from  the  Quirites,  who  formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  Roman  people, 
and  wnose  name  wa*  subsequently  given  to  the  entire. 


PUBLIC    AMUSEMENTS.  55 

farmed  the  public  revenue  were  called  publicans,  and  were 
generally  persons  of  equestrian  dignity ;  but  in  the  remote 
provinces  they  frequently  sublet  to  other  collectors,  who 
were  guilty  of  great  extortion.  The  latter  are  the  publicans 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  When  did  the  Romans  first  appoint  judges  T 

2.  How  were  the  decisions  of  the  praetors  regulated  1 

3.  How  are  trials  divided  ! 

4.  In  what  manner  were  offences  against  the  classes  of  patricians  and 

plebeians  tried  ? 

5.  How  was  disobedience  to  the  chief  magistrate  punished  1 

6.  What  was  the  penalty  for  usurpation  ? 

7.  How  was  mal-administration  punished  1 

8.  When  did  the  praetors  impannel  a  jury  ? 

9.  What  was  the  form  of  a  trial  ? 

10.  Were  there  any  other  forms  used  in  trials  before  the  people  ? 
1 1    Had  the  criminal  any  chances  of  escape  1 
12.  What  were  the  usual  punishments! 

1 3  How  was  parricide  punished  ? 

14  In  what  respect  alone  was  the  criminal  law  of  the  Romans  severe  ? 
15.   What  we^e  the  sources  of  the  Roman  revenue] 

16    To  whom  was  the  management  of  the  finances  entrusted  T 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    PUBLIC    AMUSEMENTS    AND    PRIVATE    LIFE    OF 
THE    ROMANS. 

1.  THE  inferiority  of  the  Romans  to  the  Greeks  in  intel- 
lectual acquirements,  was  no  where  more  conspicuous  than 
in  their  public  amusements.  While  the  refined  Grecians 
sought  to  gratify  their  taste  by  music,  the  fine  arts,  and  dra- 
matic entertainments,  the  Romans  derived  their  chief  plea- 
sure from  contemplating  the  brutal  and  bloody  fights  of  gla- 
diators ;  or  at  best,  such  rich  shows  and  processions  as 
gratify  the  uneducated  vulgar.  The  games  in  the  circus, 
with  which  the  Romans  were  so  delighted,  that  they  con- 
sidered them  of  equal  importance  with  the  necessaries  of 
life,  consisted  of  athletic  exercises,  such  as  boxing,  racing, 


56  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

Wrestling,  and  gladiatorial  combats.  To  these,  chariot- 
racing  was  added  under  the  emperors,  and  exhibitions  of 
combats  between  wild  beasts,  and,  in  numerous  instances, 
between  men  and  beasts. 

2.  After  the  establishment  of  the  naval  power  of  Rome, 
naumachiae,  or  naval  combats,  were  frequently  exhibited  in 
circi  built  for  the  purpose.     These  were  not  always  sham 
fights ;  the  contests  were,  in  many  instances,  real  engage- 
ments displaying  all  the  horrors  of  a  sanguinary  battle. 

3.  The  custom  of  exhibiting  shows  of  gladiators,  origin- 
ated in  the    barbarous  sacrifices  of  human  beings,  which 
prevailed  in  remote  ages.     In  the  gloomy  superstition  of  the 
Romans,  it  was  believed  that  the  manes,  or  shades  of  the 
dead,  derived  pleasure  from  human  blood,  and  they  there- 
fore sacrificed,  at  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors,  captives  taken 
in  war,  or  wretched  slaves.     It  was  soon  found  that  sport 
to  the  living  might  be  combined  with  this  horrible  offering 
to  the  dead ;  and  instead  of  giving  up  the  miserable  victims 
to  the  executioner,  they  were  compelled  to  fight  with  each 
other,  until  the  greater  part  was  exterminated. 

4.  The  pleasure  that  the  people  derived  from  this  execra- 
ble amusement,  induced  the  candidates  for  office  to  gratify 
them  frequently  with  this  spectacle.     The  exhibitions  were 
no  longer  confined  to  funerals ;  they  formed  an  integrant  part 
of  every  election,  and  were  found  more  powerful  than  merit 
in  opening  a  way  to  office.     The  utter  demoralization  of 
the  Roman  people,  and  the  facility  with  which  the  tyranny 
of  the  emperors  was  established,  unquestionably  was  owing, 
in  a  great  degree,  to  the  pernicious  prevalence  of  these  scan- 
dalous exhibitions. 

5.  To  supply  the  people  with  gladiators,  schools  were 
established  in  various  parts  of  Italy,  each  under  the  controul 
of  a  lanis'ta,  or  fencing-master,  who  instructed  them  in  mar- 
tial exercises.     The  victims  were  either  prisoners  of  war, 
or  refractory  slaves,  sold  by  their  masters ;  but  in  the  de- 
generate ages  of  the  empire,  freemen,  and  even  senators, 
ventured  their  lives  on  the  stage  along  with  the  regular  gla- 
diators.    Under  the  mild  and  merciful  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity these  combats  were  abolished,  and  human  blood  was 
no  longer  shed  to  gratify  a  cruel  and  sanguinary*populace. 

6.  So  numerous  were  the  gladiators,  that  Spar'tacus,  one 
of  their  number,  having  escaped  from  a  school,  raised  an 
army  of  his  fellow-sufferers,  amounting  to  seventy  thousand 
men  ;  he  was  finally  subdued  by  Cras'sus,  the  colleague  of 


PUBLIC    AMUSEMENTS.  57 

Pompey.  Ju'lius  Caesar,  during  his  aedileship,  exhibited  at 
one  time  three  hundred  and  twenty  pairs  of  gladiators  ;  but 
even  this  was  surpassed  by  the  emperor  Trajan,  who  dis- 
played no  less  than  one  thousand. 

7.  The  gladiators  were  named  from  their  peculiar  arms ; 
the  most  common  were  the  retiarius,  who  endeavoured  to 
hamper  his  antagonist  with  a  net ;  and  his  opponent  the 
secutor. 

8.  When  a  gladiator  was  wounded,  or  in  any  way  disa- 
bled, he  fled  to  the  extremity  of  the  stage,  and  implored  the 
pity  of  the  spectators ;  if  he  had  shown  good  sport,  they 
took  him  under  their  protection  by  pressing  down  their 
thumbs ;  but  if  he  had  been  found  deficient  in  courage  or 
activity,  they  held  the  thumb  back,  and  he  was  instantly 
murdered  by  his  adversary. 

9.  The  Roman  theatre  was  formed  after  the  model  of  the 
Greeks,  but  never  attained  equal  eminence.     The  populace 
always  paid  more  regard  to  the  dresses  of  the  actors,  and  the 
richness  of  the  decoration,  than  to  ingenious  structure  of  plot, 
or  elegance  of  language.     Scenic  representations  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  very  popular  at  Rome,  certainly  never  so 
much  as  the  sports  of  the  circus.     Besides  comedies  and 
tragedies,  the  Romans  had  a  species  of  drama  peculiar  to 
their   country,  called   the  Atellane  farces,  which  were,  in 
general,  low  pieces  of  gross  indecency  and  vulgar  buffoon- 
ery, but  sometimes  contained  spirited  satires  on  the  character 
and  conduct  of  public  men. 

10.  We  should  be  greatly  mistaken  if  we  supposed  that 
the  theatres  in  ancient  Rome  at  all  resembled  those  of  mo- 
dern times  ;  they  were  stupendous  edifices,  some  of  which 
could  accommodate  thirty  thousand  spectators,  and  an  army 
could  perform  its  evolutions  on  the  stage.     To  remedy  the 
defects  of  distance,  the  tragic  actors  wore  a  buskin  with 
very  thick  soles,  to  raise  them  above  their  natural  size,  and 
covered  their  faces  with  a  mask  so  contrived  as  to  render 
the  voice   more   clear  and  full.*     Instead  of  the  buskin, 
comic  actors  wore  a  sort  of  slipper  called  a  sock. 

11.  The  periodical  festivals  of  the  Romans  were  cele- 
brated with  theatrical  entertainments  and  sports  in  the  cir- 
cus at  the  public  expense.     The  most  remarkable  of  these 

*  Hence  the  mask  was  called  persona,  from  personare,  to  sound 
through.  From  persona  the  English  word  person  is  derived,  which 
properly  signifies  not  so  much  an  individual,  as  the  aspect  of  that  indi  > 
vidual  in  relation  to  civil  society. 


fa8  HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

festivals  was  the  secular,  which  occurred  only  at  periods  of 
one  hundred  and  ten  years.  The  others  occurred  annually, 
and  were  named  from  the  gods  to  whose  honour  they  were 
dedicated. 

.  12.  The  Romans  were  a  more  grave  and  domestic  peo- 
ple than  the  lively  Greeks ;  their  favourite  dress,  the  toga 
or  gown,  was  more  formal  and  stately  than  the  Grecian 
short  cloak ;  their  demeanour  was  more  stern,  and  their 
manners  more  imposing.  The  great  object  of  the  old  Ro 
man  was,  to  maintain  his  dignity  under  all  circumstances, 
and  to  show  that  he  could  controul  the  emotions  to  which 
ordinary  men  too  readily  yield.  Excessive  joy  or  grief, 
unqualified  admiration,  or  intense  surprise,  were  deemed 
disgraceful ;  and  even  at  a  funeral,  the  duty  of  lamenting 
the  deceased  was  entrusted  to  hired  mournets.  Temper- 
ance at  meals  was  a  leading  feature  in  the  character  of  the 
Romans  during  the  early  ages  of  the  republic  ;  but  after  the 
conquest  of  Asia,  their  luxuries  were  more  extravagant  than 
those  of  any  nation  recorded  in  history.  But  there  was 
more  extravagance  than  refinement  in  the  Roman  luxury ; 
and  though  immense  sums  were  lavished  on  entertainments, 
they  were  destitute  of  that  taste  and  elegance  more  delight- 
ful than  the  most  costly  delicacies. 

13.  The  Roman  ladies  enjoyed  more  freedom  than  those 
in  any  other  ancient  nation.  They  visited  all  places  of 
public  amusement  uncontrolled,  and  mingled  in  general 
society.  The  power  of  the  husband,  however,  was  abso- 
lute, and  he  could  divorce  his  wife  at  pleasure  without 
assigning  any  cause.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  republic  this 
privilege  was  rarely  exercised,  and  the  Roman  ladies  were 
strictly  virtuous ;  but  at  a  later  period  divorces  were  multi- 
plied, and  the  most  shocking  depravity  was  the  consequence. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  were  the  national  amusements  of  the  Romans  ] 

2.  What  were  the  naumachiae  ? 

3.  Whence  arose  the  custom  of  gladiatorial  combats  ? 

4.  Why  were  these  exhibitions  of  frequent  occurrence  1 

5.  How  was  the  supply  of  gladiators  kept  up  1 

6.  From  what  circumstances  do  we  learn  the  great  numbers  of  the 

gladiators  1 

7.  What  names  were  given  to  the  gladiators] 

8.  How  were  these  combats  terminated  1 

9-  What  pieces  were  exhibited  on  the  Roman  stage  1 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    EMPIRE.  59 

10.  How  did  the  dramatic  entertainments  in  Rome  differ  from  those  of 

modern  times  1 

1 1 .  Which  were  the  most  remarkable  Roman  festivals  ? 

12.  What  was  the  general  character  of  the  Roman  people! 

13.  How  were  women  treated  in  Rome! 


CHAPTER  X.  ^ 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  EMPIRE  AT  THE  TIME  OF  ITS 
GREATEST  EXTENT. 

1.  THE  ordinary  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire,  over 
which,  however,  it  sometimes  passed,  were,  in  Europe,  the 
two  great  rivers  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube ;  in  Asia,  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Syrian  deserts ;  in  Africa,  the  tracts  of 
arid  sand  which  fence  the  interior  of  that  continent.     It 
thus  contained  those  fertile  and  rich  countries  which  sur- 
round  the   Mediterranean   sea,  and   constitute  the  fairest 
portion  of  the  earth. 

2.  Beginning  at  the  west   of  Europe,*  we  find,  first, 
Hispa'nia,  Spain.    Its  boundaries  are,  on  the  east,  the  chain 
of  the  Pyrenees ;  on  every  other  side,  the  sea.     It  was 
divided    into   three    provinces  :    1.    Lusita'nia,   Portugal, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Du'rius,  Douro,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Anas,  Guadiana :  2.  Bo'etica,  bounded  on  the 
north  and  west  by  the  A'nas,  and  on  the  east  by  the  moun- 
tains  of   Orospe'da,   Sierra  Morena :    3.   Tarracone'nsis, 
which  includes  the   remainder  of  the  Spanish  peninsula. 
3.  Spain  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  second  Punic  war ;  Lusitania,  after  a  despe- 
rate resistance,  was  added  at  a  later  period. 

4.  Transalpine  Gaul  was  the  name  given  to  the  entire 
country  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Rhine ;  it  conse- 
quently included  France,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium.  5. 
Gaul  was  divided  in  four  provinces:  1.  Narbonen'sis  or 
Bracca'ta,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Pyrenees ;  on  the 
north  by  the  Cevennian  mountains,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Va'rus,  Vat:  2.  Lugdimen'sis  or  Cel'tica,  bounded  on  the 
south  and  west  by  the  Li'ger,  Loire;  on  the  north  by  tho 
Sequa'na,  Seine,  and  on  the  east  by  the  A'rar,  Saone : 

•  The  student  will  find  the  particulars  of  the  ancient  state  of  these 
countries  detailed  more  fully  in  the  Epitome  of  Classical  Geography. 


HISTORY    OF    ROME INTRODUCTION. 

3.  Aquita'nica,  bounded  by  the  Pyrenees  on  the  south,  ant 
the  Li'ger  on  the  north  and  east:  4.  Bel'gica,  bounded  on 
the  north  and  east  by  the  Rhe'nus,  Rhine;  on  the  west  by 
the  Arar,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Rhoda'nus,  Rhone,  as  far 
as  the  city  Lugdu'num,  Lyons.  Helve'tia,  the  modern 
Switzerland,  was  included  in  Belgic  Gaul.  This  extensive 
country  was  not  totally  subdued  before  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar. 

6.  Italy  has  been  already  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter ; 
we  shall  therefore  pass  it  over  and  come  to  the  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

Sici'lia  or  Trinac'ria,  Sicily,  was  the  first  province  that 
the  Romans  gained  beyond  the  confines  of  Italy.  The 
cities  on  its  coast  were  founded  by  Phoenician  and  Grecian 
colonies,  but  the  native  inhabitants  retained  possession  of 
the  interior;  one  tribe,  named  the  Sic'uli,  are  said  to  have 
migrated  from  Italy,  and  to  have  given  their  name  to  the 
island.  The  Greeks  and  Carthaginians  long  contended  for 
supremacy  in  this  island,  but  it  was  wrested  from  both  by 
the  Romans  towards  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
Nearly  at  the  same  time,  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sar- 
dinia were  annexed  to  the  empire. 

7.  Britan'nia,   divided   into   Britan'nia  Roma'na,   which 
contained  England  and  the  south  of  Scotland ;  and  Britannia 
Bar'bara  or  Caledo'nia,  the  northern  part  of  Scotland,  into 
which  the    Romans    never   penetrated.     Britain   was   first 
invaded  by  Julius  Caesar,  but  was  not  wholly  subdued  before 
the  time  of  Nero.  As  for  Hiber'nia  or  ler'ne,  Ireland,  it  was 
visited  by  Roman  merchants,  but  never  by  Roman  legions. 

8.  The  countries  south  of  the  Danube,  were  subdued  and 
divided  into  provinces  during  the  reign  of  Augustus.     The 
number  of  these    provinces   was    seven  :     1.    Vindeli'cia, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube  ;  on  the  east  by  the 
.tE'nus,  Inn;  on  the  west  by  Helve'tia,  and  on  the  south  by 
Rhse'Ua :  2.  Rhaetia,  lying  between  Helve'tia,  Vindeli'cia, 
and  the  eastern  chain  of  the  Alps :  3.  Novi'cum,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  west  by  the  ^E'nus, 
Inn,  on  the  east  by  mount  Ce'tius,  Kahlenberg,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Julian  Alps  and  the  Sa'vus,  Save :  4.  Pan- 
no'nia  Superior,  having  as  boundaries,  the  Danube  on  the 
north  and  east ;  the  Ar'rabo,  Raab,  on  the  south  ;  and  the 
Cetian  mountains  on  the  west :  5.  Panno'nia  Inferior,  having 
the  Ar'rabo  on  the  north  ;  the  Ar'rabo  on  the  east ;  and  the 
Sa'vus  on  the  south :  £.  Mce'sia  Superior,  bounded  on  the 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    EMPIRE.  61 

north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  south  by  Mount  Scar'dus, 
Tchar-dag  ;  on  the  west  by  the  Pan'nonia,  and  on  the  east 
by  the  river  Ce'brus,  Isker :  7.  Moe'sia  Inferior,  having 
the  Danube  on  the  north ;  the  Ce'brus  on  the  west ;  the 
chain  of  mount  Hae'mus  on  the  south,  and  the  Pon'tus 
Eux'imus,  Black  Sea,  on  the  east. 

9.  Illyricum  included  the  districts  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Adriatic,  from  Rhae'tia  to  the  river  Dri'nus,  Drino 
JSrianco,  in  the  south,  and  the  Sa'vus,  Save,  on  the  east. 
It  was   subdued  by  the   Romans  about  the   time   of  the 
Macedonian  war. 

10.  Macedon  and  Greece  were  subdued  after  the  con- 
quest of  Carthage ;  for  the  particulars  of  their  geography, 
the  student  is  referred  to  the  introduction  prefixed  to  the 
last  edition  of  the  Grecian  History.     Thrace  was  governed 
by  its  own  kings,  who  were  tributary  to  the  Romans  until 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudian,  when  it  was  made  a 
province. 

11.  Da'cia  was  first  subdued  by  the  emperor  Trajan,  and 
was  the  only  province  north  of  the  Danube ;  its  boundaries 
were,  the  Carpathian  mountains  on  the  north,  the  Tibis'- 
cus,  TTieiss,  on  the  west,  the  Hiera'sus,  Pruth,  on  the  east, 
and  the  Danube  on  the  south. 

12.  The  principal  Asiatic  provinces  were,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Phreni'cia.     Beyond  the  Euphra'tes,  Arme'nia 
and   Mesopota'mia  were  reduced  to  provinces  by  Trajan, 
but  abandoned  by  his  successor  Adrian. 

13.  The  African   provinces  were,  Egypt,   Cyrena'ica, 
Numidia,  and  Maurita'nia. 

14.  The  principal  states  on  the  borders  of  the  empire 
were,  Germa'nia  and  Sarma'tia  in  Europe,  Arme'nia  and 
Par'thia  in  Asia,  and  jEthio'pia  in  Africa. 

15.  Eastern  Asia,  or  India,  was  only  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans by  a  commercial  intercourse,  which  was  opened  with 
that  country  soon  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt. 

It  was  divided  into  India  on  this  side  the  Ganges,  and 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  which  included  Se'rica,  a  country 
of  which  the  Romans  possessed  but  little  knowledge.  India 
at  the  western  side  of  the  Ganges  contained,  1.  The  terri- 
tory between  the  In'dus  and  Gan'ges :  2.  The  western 
coast,  now  called  Malabar,  which  was  the  part  best  known, 
and,  3.  The  island  of  Taproba'ne,  Ceylon. 

16.  The  commerce  between  Europe  and  southern  Asia 
became  important  in  the  reign  of  Alexan'der  the  Great; 

F 


C2  HISTORY    OF    HOME INTRODTTCTION. 

the  greater  part  of  the  towns  founded  by  that  mighty  con 
queror  were  intended  to  facilitate  this  lucrative  trade.*  Aftei 
his  death,  the  Ptol'emys  of  Egypt  became  the  patrons  of 
Indian  traflic,  which  was  unwisely  neglected  by  the  kings 
of  Syria.  When  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  the 
commerce  with  India  was  not  interrupted,  and  the  principal 
mart  for  Indian  commerce  under  the  Roman  emperors,  was 
always  Alexandria.  The  jealousy  of  the  Parthians  excluded 
strangers  from  their  territories,  and  put  an  end  to  the  trade 
that  was  carried  on  between  northern  India,  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  sea,  and  thence  to  the  JEgean.  In  consequence 
of  this  interruption,  Palmy 'ra  and  Alexandri'a  became  the 
great  depots  of  eastern  commerce,  and  to  this  circumstance 
they  owed  their  enormous  wealth  and  magnificence. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  were  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire  ? 

2.  How  was  Spain  divided  1 

3.  When  was  Spain  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  ? 

4.  What  countries  were  included  in  Transalpine  Gaul  1 

5.  How  was  Gaul  divided  ? 

6.  What  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  were  included  in  the  Roman 

empire  1 

7.  When  was  Britain  invaded  by  the  Romans,  and  how  much  of  the 

country  did  they  subdue! 

8.  Into  what  provinces  were  the  countries  south  of  the  Danube  divided? 

9.  What  was  the  extent  of  Illyricum  1 

1 0.  What  were  the  Roman  provinces  in  the  east  of  Europe  1 

1 1 .  By  whom  was  Dacia  conquered  ? 

1 2.  What  were  the  Asiatic  provinces  ? 

1 3.  What  were  the  African  provinces  ? 

'4.  What  were  the  principal  states  bordering  on  the  empire  ? 

1 5.  Was  India  known  to  the  Romans  ] 

16.  What  cities  under  the  Romans  enjoyed  the  greatest  commerce 

with  India  1 

*  See  Pinnock's  Grecian  History. 


END    OF    THE    INTRODUCTION. 


HISTORY  OF  ROME. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF    THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    ROMANS. 

1.  THE  Romans  were  particularly  desirous  of  being 
thought  descendants  of  the  gods,  as  if  to  hide  the  meanness 
of  their  real  ancestry.  JEne'as,  the  son  of  Venus  and  Jln- 
chi'ses,  having  escaped  from  the  destruction  of  Troy,  after 
many  adventures  and  dangers,  arrived  in  Italy,  A.  M.  2294, 
where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Lati'nus,  king  of  the  La- 
tins, who  promised  him  his  daughter  Lavin'ia  in  marriage. 
2.  Turnus,  king  of  the  Ru'lidi,  was  the  first  who  opposed 
jEne'as,  he  having  long  made  pretensions  to  her  himself. 
A  war  ensued,  in  which  the  Trojan  hero  was  victorious, 
and  Turnus  slain.  In  consequence  of  this,  Lavin'ia  be- 
came the  wife  of  JEne'as,  who  built  a  city  to  her  honour, 
and  called  it  Lavin'ium.  Some  time  after,  engaging  in  a 
war  against  Mezen'tius,  one  of  thq  petty  kings  oi'  the  coun- 
try, he  was  vanquished  in  turn,  and  died  in  battle,  after  a 
reign  of  four  years.  3.  Asca'nius  his  son,  succeeded  to  the 
kingdom  ;  and  to  him  Sil'vius,  a  second  son,  whom  he  had 
by  Lavin'ia.  It  would  be  tedious  and  uninteresting  to  recite 
a  dry  catalogue  of  the  kings  that  followed,  of  whom  we 
know  little  more  than  the  names  ;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say, 
that  the  succession  continued  for  nearly  four  hundred  years 
in  the  same  family,  and  that  Nu'mitor,  the  fifteenth  from 
^Ene'as,  was  the  last  king  of  Alba. 

Nu'mitor,  who  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  in  conse- 
quence of  his  father's  will,  had  a  brother  named  Amu'lius, 
to  whom  were  left  the  treasures  which  had  been  brought 
from  Troy.  4.  As  riches  too  generally  prevail  against  right, 
Amu'lius  made  use  of  his  wealth  to  supplant  his  brother, 
and  soon  found  means  to  possess  himself  of  the  kingdom. 
Not  contented  with  the  crime  of  usurpation,  he  added  that 
of  murder  also.  Nu'mitor's  sons  first  fell  a  sacrifice  to  his 
suspicions ;  and  to  remove  all  apprehensions  of  being  one 

63 


64  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

day  disturbed  in  his  ill-gotten  power,  he  caused  Rhe'a  Sil'- 
via,  his  brother's  only  daughter,  to  become  a  vestal. 

5.  His  precautions,  however,  were  all  frustrated  in  the 
event.  Rhe'a  Sil'via,  and,  according  to  tradition,  Mars  the 
god  of  war,  were  the  parents  of  two  boys,  who  were  no 
sooner  born,  than  devoted  -by  the  usurper  to  destruction. 

7.  The  mother  was  condemned  to  be  buried  alive,  the  usual 
punishment  for  vestals  who  had  violated  their  vows,  and 
the  twins  were  ordered  to  be  flung  into  the  river  Tiber. 

8.  It  happened,  however,  at  the  time  this  rigorous  sentence 
was  put  into  execution,  that  the  river  had,  more  than  usual, 
overflowed  its  banks,  so  that  the  place  where  the  children 
were  thrown  being  distant  from  the  main  current,  the  water 
was  too  shallow  to  drown  them.     It  is  said  by  some,  that 
they  were  exposed  in  a  cradle,  which,  after  floating  for  a 
time,  was,  by  the  water's  retiring,  left  on  dry  ground ;  that 
a  wolf,  descending  from  the  mountains  to  drink,  ran,  at  the 
cry  of  the  children,  and  fed  them  under  a  fig-tree,  caressing 
and  licking  them  as  if  they  had  been  her  own  young,  the 
infants  hanging  on  to  her  as  if  she  had  been  their  mother, 
until  Faus'tulus,  the  king's  shepherd,  struck  with  so  sur- 
prising a  sight,  conveyed  them  home,  and  delivered  them  to 
his  wife,  Ac'ca  Lauren'tia,  to  nurse,  who  brought  them  up 
as   her   own.     9.  Others,  however,  assert,  that   from   the 
vicious  life  of  this  woman,  the  shepherds  had  given  her  the 
nickname  of  Lupa,  or  wolf,  which  they  suppose  might  pos- 
sibly be  the  occasion  of  this  marvellous  story. 

10.  Romu'lus  and  Re'mus,  the  twins,  in  whatever  man- 
ner preserved,  seemed  early  to  discover  abilities  and  de- 
sires above  the  meanness  of  their  supposed  origin.  From 
their  very  infancy,  an  air  of  superiority  and  grandeur 
seemed  to  discover  their  rank.  They  led,  however,  the 
shepherd's  life  like  the  rest ;  worked  for  their  livelihood, 
and  built  their  own  huts.  But  pastoral  idleness  displeased 
them,  and,  from  tending  their  flocks,  they  betook  them- 
selves to  the  chase.  Then,  no  longer  content  with  hunting 
wild  beasts,  they  turned  their  strength  against  the  robbers 
of  their  country,  whom  they  often  stripped  of  their  plunder, 
and  divided  it  among  the  shepherds.  11.  The  youths  who 
continually  joined  them  so  increased  in  number,  as  to  ena- 
ble them  to  hold  assemblies,  and  celebrate  games.  In  one 
of  their  excursions,  the  two  brothers  were  surprised.  Re'- 
mus was  taken  prisoner,  carried  before  the  king,  and  accu- 
sed of  being  a  plunderer  and  robber  on  Nu'mitor's  lands. 


OF    THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    ROMANS.  65 

Rom'ulus  had  escaped  ;  but  Re'mus,  the  king  sent  to  Nu'- 
mitor,  that  he  might  do  himself  justice. 

12.  From  many  circumstances,  Faus'tulus  suspected  the 
twins  under  his  care  to  be  the  same  that  Amu'lius  had  ex- 
posed on  the  Ti'ber,  and  at  length  divulged  his  suspicions 
to  Rom'ulus.     Nu'mitor  made  the  same  discovery  to  Re'- 
mus.    From  that  time  nothing  was  thought  of  but  the  ty- 
rant's destruction.     He  was  beset  on  all  sides  ;  and,  during 
the  amazement  and  distraction  that  ensued,  was  taken  and 
slain ;  while   Nu'mitor,  who  had  been  deposed   for   forty 
years,  recognised  his  grandsons,  and  was  once  more  placed 
on  the  throne. 

13.  The  two  brothers,  leaving  Nu'mitor  the  kingdom  of 
Alba,  determined  to  build  a  city  upon  the  spot  where  they 
had  been  exposed  and  preserved.     But  a  fatal   desire   of 
reigning  seized  them  both,  and  created  a  difference  between 
these  noble  youths,  which    terminated    tragically.     Birth- 
right in  the  case  of  twins  could  claim  no  precedence  ;  they 
therefore  were  advised  by  the  king  to  take  an  omen  from 
the  flight  of  birds,  to  know  to  which  of  them  the  tutelar 
gods  would  decree  the  honour  of  governing  the  rising  city, 
and,  consequently,  of  being  the  director  of  the  other.    14.  In 
compliance  with  this  advice,  each  took  his  station  on  a  dif 
fcrrnt  hill.     To  Re'mus  appeared  six  vultures  ;  in  the  mo 
nient  after,  Rom'ulus  saw  twelve.     Two  parties  had  been 
formed  for  this  purpose ;  the  one  declared  for  Re'mus,  who 
first  saw  the  vultures  ;  the  other  for  Rom'ulus,  who  saw  the 
greater  number.     Each  party  called  itself  victorious ;   the 
one  having  the  first  omen,  the  other  that  which  was  most 
complete.     This  produced  a  contest  which  ended  in  a  bat- 
tle, wherein   Re'mus  was  slain.     It  is  even  said,  that  he 
was  killed  by  his  brother,  who,  being  provoked  at  his  leap- 
ing contemptuously  over   the  city  wall,  struck  him   dead 
upon  the  spot. 

15.  Rom'ulus  being  now  sole  commander  and  eighteen 
years  of  age,  began  the  foundation  of  a  city  that  was  one 
day  to  give  laws  to  the  world.  It  was  called  Rome,  after 
the  name  of  the  founder,  and  built  upon  the  Palatine  hill, 
on  which  he  had  taken  his  successful  omen,  A.  M.  3252  ; 
ANTE  c.  752.  The  city  was  at  first  nearly  square,  contain- 
ing about  a  thousand  houses.  It  was  almost  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference, and  commanded  a  small  territory  round  it  of 
eight  miles  over.  16.  However,  small  as  it  appears,  it  was 
yet  worse  inhabited ;  and  the  first  method  made  use  of  to 
r2 


66  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

increase  its  numbers,  was  the  opening  of  a  sanctuary  for  all 
malefactors  and  slaves,  and  such  as  were  desirous  of  novel- 
ty; these  came  in  great  multitudes,  and  contributed  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  our  legislator's  new  subjects. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Romans  ? 

2.  Who  first  opposed  -<Eneas,  and  what  was  the  result  T 

3.  Who  were  the  successors  of  ./Eneas  ! 

4.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Amulius1? 

5.  What  event  frustrated  his  precautions  ! 

6.  What  followed  ? 

7.  What  was  the  sentence  on  Rhea  Silvia  and  her  children  1 

8.  How  were  the  children  preserved  ? 

9.  What  is  supposed  to  have  occasioned  this  marvellous  story  T 

10.  WThat  was  the  character  and  conduct  of  Romulus  and  Remus  1 

1 1 .  In  what  manner  were  they  surprised  ? 

1 2.  How  was  the  birth  of  Romulus  and  Remus  discovered,  and  what 

consequences  followed  1 

1 3.  What  caused  a  difference  between  the  brothers  1 

14.  Relate  the  circumstances  which  followed! 

15.  By  whom  was  Rome  built,  and  what  was  then  its  situation  1 

16.  By  what  means  was  the  new  city  peopled  ? 


CHAPTER  II. 

FROM  THE  BUILDING  OF  ROME  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  ROMULUS. 

1.  SCARCELY  was  the  city  raised  above  its  foundation, 
when  its  rude  inhabitants  began  to  think  of  giving  some 
form  to  their  constitution.  Rom'ulus,  by  an  act  of  great 
generosity,  left  them  at  liberty  to  choose  whom  they  would 
for  their  king ;  and  they,  in  gratitude,  concurred  to  elect 
him  for  their  founder.  He,  accordingly,  was  acknowledged 
as  chief  of  their  religion,  sovereign  magistrate  of  Rome, 
and  general  of  the  army.  Beside  a  guard  to  attend  his 
person,  it  was  agreed,  that  he  should  be  preceded  wherever 
he  went,  by  twelve  lictors,  each  armed  with  an  axe  tied  up 
in  a  bundle  of  rods  ;*  these  were  to  serve  as  executioners  of 

*  This  symbol  of  authority  was  borrowed  from  his  neighbours,  tho 
Etrurians. 


ROMULUS.  67 

the  law,  and  to  impress  his  new  subjects  with  an  idea  of 
his  authority. 

2.  The  senafe,  who  were  to  act  as  counsellors  to  the 
king,  was  composed  of  a  hundred  of  the  principal  citizens 
of  Rome,  consisting  of  men  whose  age,  wisdom,  or  valour, 
gave  them  a  natural  authority  over  their  fellow-subjects. 
The  king  named  the  first  senator,  who  was  called  prince  of 
the  senate,  and  appointed  him  to  the  government  of  the 
city,  whenever  war  required  his  own  absence. 

3.  The  patricians,  who  composed  the  third  part  of  the 
legislature,  assumed  to  themselves  the  power  of  authorising 
those  laws  which  were  passed  by  the  king,  or  the  senate. 
All  things  relative  to  peace  or  war,  to  the  election  of  magis- 
trates, and  even  to  the  choosing  a  king,  were  confirmed  by 
suffrages  in  their  assemblies. 

4.  The  plebeians  were  to  till  the  fields,  feed  cattle,  and 
follow  trades  ;  but  not  to  have  any  share  in  the  government, 
to  avoid  the  inconveniences  of  a  popular  power. 

5.  The  first  care  of  the  new-created  king  was,  to  attend 
to  the  interests  of  religion.     The  precise  form  of  their  wor- 
ship is  unknown ;  but  the  greatest  part  of  the  religion  of 
that  age  consisted  in  a  firm  reliance  upon  the  credit  of  their 
soothsayers,  who  pretended,  from  observation  on  the  flight 
of  birds,  and   the  entrails  of  beasts,  to  direct  the  present, 
and  to  dive  into  futurity.     Rom'ulus,  by  an  express  law, 
commanded  that  no  election  should  be  made,  nor  enterprise 
undertaken,  without  first  consulting  them. 

6.  Wives  were  forbidden,  upon  any  pretext  whatsoever, 
to  separate  from  their  husbands  ;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
the  husband  was  empowered  to  repudiate  the  wife,  and 
even,  in  some  cases,  to  put  her  to  death.   The  laws  between 
children  and  their  parents  were  still  more  severe  ;  the  father 
had  entire  power  over  his  offspring,  both  of  fortune  and  life  ; 
he  could  imprison  and  sell  them  at  any  time  of  their  lives, 
or  in  any  stations  to  which  they  M-ere  arrived. 

7.  After  endeavouring  to  regulate  his  subjects  by  law, 
Rom'ulus  next  gave  orders  to  ascertain  their  numbers.    The 
whole  amounted  to  no  more  than  three  thousand  foot,  and 
about  as  many  hundred  horsemen,  capable  of  bearing  arms. 
These,  therefore,  were  divided  equally  into  three  tribes,  and 
to  each  he  assigned  a  dillerent  part  of  the  city.     Each  of 
these  tribes  was  subdivided  into  ten  curiae,  or  companies, 
consisting  of  a  hundred  men  each,  with  a  centurion  to  com- 
mand it ;  a  priest  called  curio,  to  perform  the  sacrifices , 


(58  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

and  two  of  the  principal  inhabitants,  called  duumviri,   to 
distribute  justice. 

8.  By  these  judicious  regulations,  each  day  added  strength 
to  the  new  city ;  multitudes  of  people  flocked  in  from  all 
the  adjacent  towns,  and  it  only  seemed  to  want  women  to 
insure  its  duration.  In  this  exigence,  Rom'ulus,  by  the 
advice  of  the  senate,  sent  deputies  among  the  Sab'ines,  his 
neighbours,  entreating  their  alliance  ;  and,  upon  these  terms, 
offering  to  cement  the  strictest  confederacy  with  them.  The 
Sab'ines,  who  were  at  that  time  considered  as  the  most 
warlike  people  of  Italy,  rejected  the  proposal  with  disdain. 
9.  Rom'ulus,  therefore,  proclaimed  a  feast,  in  honour  of 
Neptune,*  throughout  all  the  neighbouring  villages,  and 
made  the  most  magnificent  preparations  for  celebrating  it. 
These  feasts  were  generally  preceded  by  sacrifices,  and 
ended  in  shows  of  wrestlers,  gladiators,  and  chariot-courses. 
The  Sab'ines,  as  he  had  expected,  were  among  the  foremost 
who  came  to  be  spectators,  bringing  their  wives  and  daughters 
with  them,  to  share  the  pleasures  of  the  sight.  10.  In  the 
mean  time  the  games  began,  and  while  the  strangers  were 
most  intent  upon  the  spectacle,  a  number  of  the  Roman 
youth  rushed  in  among  them  with  drawn  swords,  seized 
the  youngest  and  most  beautiful  women,  and  carried  them 
off  by  violence.  In  vain  the  parents  protested  against  this 
breach  of  hospitality ;  the  virgins  were  carried  away  and 
became  the  wives  of  the  Romans. 

11.  A   bloody   war  ensued.     The   cities   of    Cae'nina,t 
Antem'nae,J  and  Crustumi'num,§  were  the  first  who  resolved 
to  avenge  the  common  cause,  which  the  Sab'ines   seemed 
too  dilatory  in  pursuing.    But  all  these,  by  making  separate 
inroads,  became  an  easy  conquest  to  Rom'ulus,  who  made 
the  most  merciful  use  of  his  victories  ;  instead  of  destroying 
their  towns,  or  lessening  their  numbers,  he  only  placed 
colonies  of  Romans  in  them,  to  serve  as  a  frontier  to  repress 
more  distant  invasions. 

12.  Ta'tius,  king  of  Cures,  a  Sabine  city,  was  the  last, 
although  the  most  formidable,  who  undertook  to  revenge  the 

*  More  properly  in  honour  of  Con'sus,  a  deity  of  Sabine  origin,  whom 
the  Romans,  in  a  later  age,  confounded  with  Neptune.  (See  Keightley's 
Mythology.) 

f  A  town  of  Latium,  near  Rome.  (Livy.) 

4  A  city  of  the  Sabines,  between  Rome  and  the  Anio,  from  whence 
its  name, — Ante  Amnem.  (Dionys.  Hal.) 

§  A  town  of  Etruria,  near  Veil.  (Virg.) 


ROMULUS.  69 

disgrace  his  country  had  suffered.  He  entered  the  Roman 
territories  at  the  head  of  twenty-five  thousand  men,  and  not 
content  with  a  superiority  of  forces,  he  added  stratagem 
also.  13.  Tarpe'ia,  who  was  daughter  to  the  commander 
of  the  Capit'oline  hill,  happened  to  fall  into  his  hands,  as 
she  went  without  the  walls  of  the  city  to  fetch  water.  Upon 
her  he  prevailed,  by  means  of  large  promises,  to  betray  one 
of  the  gates  to  his  army.  The  reward  she  engaged  for, 
was  what  the  soldiers  wore  on  their  arms,  by  which  she 
meant  their  bracelets.  They,  however,  either  mistaking 
her  meaning,  or  willing  to  punish  her  perfidy,  threw  their 
bucklers  upon  her  as  they  entered,  and  crushed  her  to  death. 
14.  The  Sab'ines  being  thus  possessed  of  the  Capit'oline, 
after  some  time  a  general  engagement  ensued,  which  was 
renewed  for  several  days,  with  almost  equal  success,  and 
neither  army  could  think  of  submitting ;  it  was  in  the  val- 
ley between  the  Capit'oline  and  Quiri'nal  hills  that  the  last 
engagement  was  fought  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Sab'ines.  15.  The  battle  was  now  become  general,  and 
the  slaughter  prodigious  ;  when  the  attention  of  both  sides 
was  suddenly  turned  from  the  scene  of  horror  before  them 
to  another.  The  Sab'ine  women,  who  had  been  carried  off 
by  the  Romans,  flew  in  between  the  combatants,  with  their 
hair  loose,  and  their  ornaments  neglected,  regardless  of  their 
own  danger ;  and,  with  loud  outcries,  implored  their  hus- 
bands and  their  fathers  to  desist.  Upon  this  the  combatants, 
as  if  by  natural  impulse,  let  fall  their  weapons.  16.  An 
accommodation  ensued,  by  which  it  was  agreed,  that  Rom'- 
ulus  and  Ta'tius  should  reign  jointly  in  Rome,  with  equal 
power  and  prerogative  ;  that  a  hundred  Sab'ines  should  be 
admitted  into  the  senate  ;  that  the  city  should  retain  its  for- 
mer name,  but  the  citizens  should  be  called  Qui'rites,  after 
Cu'res,  the  principal  town  of  the  Sab'ines ;  and  that  both 
nations  being  thus  united,  such  of  the  Sab'ines  as  chose  it, 
should  be  admitted  to  live  in  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of 
citizens  of  Rome.  17.  The  conquest  of  Came'ria  was  the 
only  military  achievement  under  the  two  kings,  and  Ta'tius 
was  killed  about  five  years  after  by  the  Lavin'ians,  for  having 
protected  some  of  his  servants  who  had  plundered  them  and 
slain  their  ambassadors  ;  so  that,  by  this  accident,  Rom'ulus 
once  more  saw  himself  sole  monarch  ot  Rome.  18.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Ta'tius,  a  cruel  plague  and  famine  having 
broken  out  at  Rome,  the  Camerini  embraced  the  opportunity 
to  lay  waste  the  Roman  territory.  But  Rom'ulus  gave  their 


70  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

battle,  killed  six  thousand  on  the  spot,  and  returned  ir 
triumph  to  Rome.  He  took  likewise  Pidena^,  a  city  about 
forty  furlongs  distant  from  his  capital,  and  reduced  the 
Veien'tes  to  submission. 

19.  Successes  like  these  produced  an  equal  share  of  pride 
in  the  conqueror.  From  being  contented  with  those  limits 
which  had  been  wisely  assigned  to  his  power,  he  began  to 
affect  absolute  sway,  and  to  controul  those  laws  to  which 
he  had  himself  formerly  professed  implicit  obedience.  The 
senate  was  particularly  displeased  at  his  conduct,  as  they 
found  themselves  used  only  as  instruments  to  ratify  the 
rigour  of  his  commands.  20.  We  are  not  told  the  precise 
manner  which  they  employed  to  get  rid  of  the  tyrant. 
Some  say  that  he  was  torn  in  pieces  in  the  senate-house ; 
others,  that  he  disappeared  while  reviewing  his  army ; 
certain  it  is,  that,  from  the  secrecy  of  the  fact,  and  the  con- 
cealment of  the  body,  they  took  occasion  to  persuade  the 
multitude  that  he  was  taken  up  into  heaven ;  thus,  him 
whom  they  could  not  bear  as  a  king,  they  were  contented 
to  worship  as  a  god.  Rom'ulus  reigned  thirty-seven  years; 
and,  after  his  denth,  had  a  temple  built  to  him,  under  the 
name  of  Quiri'nus. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  were  the  first  proceedings  of  the  rude  inhabitants  of  Rome  1 

2.  Of  whom  was  the  senate  composed  ? 

3.  Who  were  the  patricians  ? 

4.  Who  were  the  plebeians  ? 

5.  What  was  the  first  care  of  the  new  king  ? 
In  what  did  the  Religion  of  Rome  consist  T 

6.  What  were  the  laws  between  husband  and  wife,  and  between 

parents  and  children  1 

7.  What  were  the  regulations  directed  by  Romulus  ? 

8.  What  was  the  result  of  these  regulations? 

9.  What  conduct  did  Romulus  adopt  in  consequence  ? 

10.  What  treatment  did  the  Sabines  experience  1 

11.  Did  they  tamely  acquiesce  in  this  outrage  ? 

12.  Who  undertook  to  revenge  the  disgrace  of  the  Sabines  ? 

13.  What  was  this  stratagem,  and  how  was  its  perpetrator  rewarded  1 

14.  Did  the  possession  of  the  Capitoline  put  an  end  to  the  wai ! 

15.  What  put  a  stop  to  this  sanguinary  conflict? 

1 6.  What  were  the  terms  of  accommodation  ? 

17.  Was  this  joint  sovereignty  of  long  continuance? 

1 8.  Was  Romulus  successful  in  military  affairs  ? 
7  9.  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

20.  What  was  the  tianner  of  his  death  I 


NT'MA    POMHLirS.  71 


CHAPTER  III. 

FROM  THE    DEATH  OF  ROMULUS,  TO  THE   DEATH  OF  NUMA 
POMPILIUS,  THE  SECOND  KINO  OF  ROME. U.  C.  38. 

1.  UPON  the  death  of  Rom'ulus,  the  city  seemed  greatly 
divided  in  the  choice  of  a  successor.  The  Sab'ines  were 
for  having  a  king  chosen  from  their  body ;  but  the  Romans 
could  not  endure  the  thoughts  of  advancing  a  stranger  to  the 
throne.  In  this  perplexity,  the  senators  undertook  to  supply 
the  place  of  the  king,  by  taking  the  government  each  of 
them  in  turn,  for  five  days,  and  during  that  time  enjoying 
all  the  honours  and  all  the  privileges  of  royalty.  2.  This 
new  form  of  government  continued  for  a  year ;  but  the  ple- 
beians, who  saw  this  method  of  transferring  power  was  only 
multiplying  their  masters,  insisted  upon  altering  that  mode 
of  government.  The  senate  being  thus  driven  to  an  elec- 
tion, at  length  pitched  upon  Nu'ma  Pompil'ius,  a  Sab'ine, 
and  their  choice  was  received  with  universal  approbation 
by  the  people.* 

3.  Nu'ma  Pompil'ius,  who  was   now   about  forty,  had 
long  been  eminent  for  his  piety,  his  justice,  his  moderation, 
and  exemplary  life.     He  was  skilled  in  all  the  learning  and 
philosophy  of  the  Sab'ines,  and  lived  at  home  at  Cu;res,t 
contented  with  a  private  fortune ;   unambitious  of  higher 
honours.     It  was  not,  therefore,  without  reluctance,  that  he 
accepted  the  dignity;   which,   when   he  did  so,  produced 
such  joy,  that  the  people  seemed  not  so  much  to  receive  a 
king  as  a  kingdom. 

4.  No  monarch  could   be  more   proper  for  them  than 
Nu'ma,  at  a  conjuncture  when  the  government  was  com- 
posed of  various  petty  states  lately  subdued,  and  but  ill 
united  to  each  other :  they  wanted  a  master  who  could,  by 
his  laws  and  precepts,  soften  their  fierce  dispositions  ;  and, 
by  his  example,  induce  them  to  a  love  of  religion,  and 
every  milder  virtue.    5.  Numa's  whole  time,  therefore,  was 

*  Nu'ma  Pompil'ius  was  the  fourth  son  of  Pompil'ius  Pom'po,  an 
illustrious  Sab'ine.  He  had  married  Ta'tia,  the  daughter  of  Ta'tius,  the 
colleague  of  Rom'ulus,  and  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  gave  himself  up 
entirely  to  solitude  and  study.  (Plutarch — Livy.) 

•(•  More  probably  at  Quirium,  the  Sabine  town  which  was  united  witc 
Rome.  (See  Introduction,  Ghap.  II.) 


72  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

spent  in  inspiring  his  subjects  with  a  love  of  piety,  and  a 
veneration  for  the  gods.  He  built  many  new  temples,  insti- 
tuted sacred  offices  and  feasts  ;  and  the  sanctity  or"  his  life 
gave  strength  to  his  assertion — that  he  had  a  particular  cor- 
respondence with  the  goddess  Ege'ria.  By  her  advice  he 
built  the  temple  of  Janus,  which  was  to  be  shut  in  time  of 
peace,  and  open  in  war.  He  regulated  the  appointment  of 
the  vestal  virgins,  and  added  considerably  to  the  privileges 
which  they  had  previously  enjoyed. 

6.  For  the  encouragement  of  agriculture,  he  divided  those 
lands,  w-hich  Romulus  had  gained  in  war,  among  the  poorer 
part  of  the  people  ;  he  regulated  the  calendar,  and  abolished 
the  distinction  between  Romans  and  Sabines,  by  dividing 
the  people  according  to  their  several  trades,  and  compelling 
them  to  live  together.  Thus  having  arrived  at  the  age  of 
fourscore  years,  and  having  reigned  forty-three  in  profound 
peace,  he  died,  ordering  his  body,  contrary  to  the  custom 
of  the  times,  to  be  buried  in  a  stone  coffin ;  and  his  books 
of  ceremonies,  which  consisted  of  twelve  in  Latin,  and  as 
many  in  Greek,  to  be  buried  by  his  side  in  another.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Upon  the  death  of  Romulus,  what  took  place   in   regard  to  his 

successor  ? 

2.  How  long  did  this  order  of  things  continue  7 

3.  What  was  the  character  of  Numa  Pompiliusl 

4.  Was  Xuma  a  monarch  suited  to  this  peculiar  conjuncture? 

5.  Relate  the  acts  of  Numa  7 

6.  What  were  the  further  acts  of  Numa  1 

7.  What  orders  did  he  leave  at  his  death  1 

*  The  age  of  Nu'ma  is  scarcely  more  historical  than  that  of  Rom'ulus, 
but  the  legends  respecting  it  are  fewer  and  pa-take  less  of  extravagance. 
Indeed,  he  had  himself  discouraged  the  songs  of  the  bards,  by  ordering 
the  highest  honours  to  be  paid  to  Tac'ita,  the  Came'na  or  Muse  of 
Silence.  His  memory  was  best  preserved  by  the  religious  ceremonies 
ascribed  to  him  by  universal  tradition.  The  later  poets  loved  to  dwell 
on  his  peaceful  virtues,  and  on  the  pure  affection  that  existed  between 
him  and  the  nymph  Egeria.  They  tell  us  that  when  the  king  served 
up  a  moderate  repast  to  his  guests  on  earthen-ware,  she  suddenly 
changed  the  dishes  into  gold,  and  the  plain  food  into  the  most  sumptu- 
ous viands.  They  also  add,  that  when  he  died,  Egeria  melted  away 
in  tears  for  his  loss,  and  was  changed  into  a  fountain. 


TULLITS    HOSTILIUS.  73 

CHAPTER  IV. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  NTJMA,  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  TULLUS 
HOSTILIUS,  THE  THIRD  KING  OF  ROME. U.  C.  82. 

1.  AT  the  death  of  Nu'ma,  the  government  once  more 
devolved  upon  the  senate,  and  so  continued,  till  the  people 
elected  Tullus  Hostil'ius  for  their  king,  which  choice  had 
also  the  concurrence  of  the  other  part  of  the  constitution. 
This  monarch,  the  grandson  of  a  noble  Roman,*  who  had 
formerly  signalized  himself  against  the  Sab'ines,  was  every 
way  unlike  his  predecessor,  being  entirely  devoted  to  war, 
and  more  fond  of  enterprise  than  even  the  founder  of  the 
empire  himself  had  been  ;  so  that  he  only  sought  a  pretext 
for  leading  his  forces  to  the  field. 

2.  The  JHbans,  by  committing  some  depredations  on  the 
Roman  territory,  were  the  first  people  that  gave  him  an 
opportunity  of  indulging  his  favourite   inclinations.     The 
forces  of  the  two  states  met  about  five  miles  from  Rome, 
prepared  to  decide  the  fate  of  their  respective  kingdoms ; 
for,  in  these  times,  a  single  battle  was  generally  decisive. 
The  two  armies  were  for  some  time  drawn  out  in  array, 
awaiting  the  signal  to  begin,  both  chiding  the  length  of  that 
dreadful  suspense,  when  an  unexpected  proposal  from  the 
Alban  general  put  a  stop  to  the  onset.     3.  Stepping  in  be- 
tween both  armies,  he  offered  the  Romans  to  decide  the 
dispute   by  single    combat ;    adding,  that   the    side  whose 
champion  was  overcome,  should  submit  to  the  conqueror. 
A  proposal  like  this,  suited  the  impetuous  temper  of  the 
Roman  king,  and  was  embraced  with  joy  by  his  subjects, 
each  of  whom  hoped  that  he  himself  should  be  chosen  to 
fight  the  cause  of  his  country.    4.  There  were,  at  that  time, 
three  twin  brothers  in  each  army ;  those  of  the   Romans 
were  called  Hora'tii,  and  those  of  the  Albans  Curia'tii ;  all 
six  remarkable    for  their  courage,  strength,    and   activity, 
and  to  these  it  was  resolved  to  commit  the  management  of 
the  combat.t     At  length  the  champions  met,  and  each,  to- 

*  It  seems  to  have  been  part  of  the  compact  between  the  Romans  and 
Sahines,  that  a  king  of  each  people  should  reign  alternately. 

f  The  Hora'tii  and  Curia'tii  were,  according  to  Diony'sius  of  Halicar- 
nas'Mis,  the  sons  of  two  sisters,  daughters  of  Sequin'ius,  an  illustrious 
citizen  of  Alba.  One  married  to  Curia'tius,  a  citizen  of  Alba,  and  the 
other  to  Hora'tius,  a  Roman :  so  that  the  champions  were  near  relative* 

G 


74  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

tally  regardless  of  his  own  safety,  only  sought  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  opponent.  The  spectators,  in  horrid  silence, 
trembled  at  every  blow,  and  wished  to  share  the  danger, 
till  fortune  seemed  to  decide  the  glory  of  the  field.  5.  Vic. 
tory,  that  had  hitherto  been  doubtful,  appeared  to  declare 
against  the  Romans :  they  beheld  two  of  their  champions 
lying  dead  upon  the  plain,  and  the  three  Curia'tii,  who 
were  wounded,  slowly  endeavouring  to  pursue  the  survi- 
vor, who  seemed  by  flight  to  beg  for  mercy.  Too  soon, 
however,  they  perceived  that  his  flight  was  only  pretended, 
in  order  to  separate  his  three  antagonists,  whom  he  waa 
unable  to  oppose  united ;  for  quickly  after,  stopping  hia 
course,  and  turning  upon  the  first,  who  followed  closely 
behind,  he  laid  him  dead  at  his  feet :  the  second  brother, 
who  was  coming  up  to  assist  him  that  had  already  fallen, 
shared  the  same  fate.  6.  There  now  remained  but  the  last 
Curia'tius  to  conquer,  who,  fatigued  and  disabled  by  hia 
wounds,  slowly  advanced  to  offer  an  easy  victory.  He  was 
killed,  almost  unresisting,  while  the  conqueror,  exclaiming, 
"  Two  have  I  already  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of  my  bro- 
thers, the  third  I  will  offer  up  to  my  country,"  despatched 
him  as  a  victim  to  the  superiority  of  the  Romans,  whom 
now  the  Alban  army  consented  to  obey.* 

7.  But  the  virtues  of  that  age  were  not  without  alloy ; 
that  very  hand  that  in  the  morning  was  exerted  to  save  his 
country,  was,  before  night,  imbrued  in  the  blood  of  a  sister: 
for,  returning  triumphant  from  the  field,  it  raised  his  indig- 
nation to  behold  her  bathed  in  tears,  and  lamenting  the  loss 
of  her  lover,  one  of  the  Curia'tii,  to  whom  she  had  been  be- 
trothed.    This  so  provoked  him  beyond  the  powers  of  suf- 
ferance, that  in  a  rage  he  slew  her:  but  the  action  displeased 
the  senate,  and  drew  after  it  the  condemnation  of  the  magis 
trate.     He  was,  however,  pardoned,  by  making  his  appeal 
to  the  people,  but  obliged  to  pass  under  the  yoke ;  an  igno- 
minious punishment,  usually  inflicted  on  prisoners  of  Avar.  1 

8.  Tullus  having  greatly  increased  the  power  and  wealth 
of  Rome  by  repeated  victories,  now  thought  proper  to  de- 
mand satisfaction  of  the  Sab'ines  for  the  insults  which  had 
been  formerly  offered  to  some  Roman  citizens  at  the  temple 

*  This  obedience  of  the  Albans  was  of  short  duration;  they  soon  re- 
lielled  and  were  defeated  by  Tullus,  who  razed  the  city  of  Alba  to  the 
ground,  and  transplanted  the  inhabitants  to  Rome,  where  he  conferred 
en  them  the  privileges  of  citizens. 

|  Livy,  lib.  i.  cap.  26.   Dion.  Hal.  1.  3. 


ANCU3    MARTIL'8. 


75 


The  victorious  Horatiui  killing  bit  litter. 


of  the  goddess  Fero'nia,  which  was  common  to  both  nations 
A  war  ensued,  which  lasted  some  years,  and  ended  in  the 
total  overthrow  of  the  Sab'ines. 

Hostil'ius  died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-two  years ;  some  say 
oy  lightning;  others,  with  more  probability,  by  treason. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  On  whom  devolved  the  government  on  the  death  of  Numa,  and  what 
is  the  character  of  his  successor  1 

5Z.  What  opportunity  first  offered  of  indulging  the  new  king's  inclina- 
tions ? 

3.  What  proposal  was  offered,  and  accepted  for  deciding  the  dispute  1 

4 — 6.  Re'ate  the  circumstances  which  attended  the  combat,  and  the  re 
suit  of  it. 

7.  What  act  followed  the  victory  ? 

8.  What  conquest  was  next  achieved  t 


CHAPTER  V. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  TULLUS  HOSTILIUS  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  AN 
CUS  MARTIUS  THE  FOURTH  KING  OF  ROME. U.  C.  115. 

1.  AFTER  an  interregnum,  as  in  the  former  case,  Ancus 
Mar'tius,  the  grandson  of  Numa,  was  elected  king  by  the 
people,  and  their  choice  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the 
senate.  As  this  monarch  was  a  lineal  descendant  from 


76  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Numa,  so  he  seemed  to  make  him  the  great  object  of  his 
imitation.  He  instituted  the  sacred  ceremonies,  which  were 
to  precede  a  declaration  of  war  ;*  but  he  took  every  occa- 
sion to  advise  his  subjects  to  return  to  the  arts  of  agricul- 
ture, and  to  lay  aside  the  less  useful  stratagems  of  war. 

2.  These  institutions  and  precepts  were  considered  by  the 
neighbouring  powers  rather  as  marks  of  cowardice  than  of 
wisdom.     The  Latins  therefore  began  to  make  incursions 
upon  his  territories,  but  their  success  was  equal   to   their 
justice.   An'cus  conquered  the  Latins,  destroyed  their  cities, 
removed  their  inhabitants  to  Rome,  and  increased  his  do- 
minions by  the  addition  of  part  of  theirs.     He  quelled  also 
an  insurrection  of  the  Ve'ii,  the  Fiden'ates,  and  the  Vol'sci; 
and  over  the  Sab'ines  he  obtained  a  second  triumph. 

3.  But  his  victories  over  the  enemy  were  by  no  means 
comparable  to  his  works  at  home,  in  raising  temples,  forti- 
fying the  city,  making  a  prison  for  malefactors,  and  build- 
ing a  sea-port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ti'ber,  called  Os'tia,  by 
which  he  secured  to  his  subjects  the  trade  of  that  river,  and 
that  of  the  salt-pits  adjacent.     Thus  having  enriched  his 
subjects,  and  beautified  the  city,  he  died,  after  a  reign  of 
twenty-four  years. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Who  was  elected  by  the  people  after  the  interregnum,  and  what 

measures  did  he  pursue  1 

2.  In  what  light  did  his  enemies  consider  his  institutions  1 
With  what  success  did  they  oppose  him  ? 

3.  What  were  the  other  acts  of  Ancus! 
How  many  years  did  he  reign  1 

*  First  an  ambassador  was  sent  to  demand  satisfaction  for  the  alleged 
injury ;  if  this  were  not  granted  within  thirty-three  days,  heralds  were 
appointed  to  proclaim  the  war  in  the  name  of  the  gods  and  people  of 
Eome.  At  the  conclusion  of  their  speech,  they  threw  their  javelins  into 
the  enemy's  confines,  and  departed. 


TARQU1MUS    PRISCUB.  77 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  ANGUS  MARTIUS,  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  TAR- 
ftUINIUS  PRISCUS  THE  FIFTH  KING  OF  ROME. U.  C.  130. 

1.  Lu'cius  TARQUIN'HJS  PRIS'CUS  was  appointed  guardian 
to  the  sons  of  the  late  king,  and  took  the  surname  of  Tar- 
quin'ius  from  the  city  of  Tarquin'ia,  whence  he  last  came. 
His  father  was  a  merchant  of  Corinth,*  who  had  acquired 
considerable  wealth  by  trade,  and  had  settled  in  Italy,  upon 
account  of  some  troubles  at  home.  His  son,  who  inherited 
his  fortune,  married  a  woman  of  family  in  the  city  of  Tar- 
quin'ia. 2.  His  birth,  profession,  and  country,  being  con- 
temptible to  the  nobles  of  the  place,  he,  by  his  wife's  per- 
suasion, came  to  settle  at  Rome,  where  merit  also  gave  a 
title  to  distinction.  On  his  w;iy  thither,  say  the  historians, 
as  he  approached  the  city  gate,  an  eagle,  stooping  from 
above,  took  off  his  hat,  and  flying  round  his  chariot  for 
some  time,  with  much  noise,  put  it  on  again.  This  his 
wife  Tan'aquil,  who  it  seems  was  skilled  in  augury,  inter- 
preted as  a  presage  that  he  should  one  day  wear  the  crown. 
Perhaps  it  was  this  which  first  fired  his  ambition  to  pursue 
it.  3.  Ancus  being  dead,  and  the  kingdom,  as  usual,  de- 
volving upon  the  senate,  Tarquin  used  all  his  power  and 
arts  to  set  aside  the  children  of  the  late  king,  and  to  get 
himself  elected  in  their  stead.  For  this  purpose,  upon  the 
day  appointed  for  election,  he  contrived  to  have  them  sent 
out  of  the  city ;  and  in  a  set  speech,  in  which  he  urged  his 
friendship  for  the  people,  the  fortune  he  had  spent  among 
them,  and  his  knowledge  of  their  government,  he  offered 
himself  for  their  king.  As  there  was  nothing  in  this  ha- 
rangue that  could  be  contested,  it  had  the  desired  effect, 
and  the  people,  with  one  consent,  elected  him  as  their  sove- 
reign. 

4.  A  kingdom  thus  obtained  by  intrigue,  was,  notwith- 
standing, governed  with  equity.  In  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  in  order  to  recompense  his  friends,  he  added  a  hun- 
dred members  more  to  the  senate,  which  made  them,  in  all, 
three  hundred. 

•  Corinth  (now  Corito)  was  a  celebrated  city  of  ancient  Greece,  situ« 
ated  on  the  isthmus  of  that  name,  about  sixty  stadia  or  furlongs  from 
the  sea.  Its  original  name  was  Ephy're. 

e  2 


78  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

5.  But  his  peaceful  endeavours  were  soon  interrupted 
by  the   inroads  of  his  restless  neighbours,  particularly  the 
Latins,  over  whom  he  triumphed,  and  whom  he  forced  to 
beg  for  peace.    He  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Sabines, 
who  had  risen  once  more,  and  had  passed  the  river  Ti'ber; 
but  attacking  them  with  vigour,  Tarquin  routed  their  army ; 
so  that  many  who  escaped  the  sword,  were  drowned  in 
attempting  to  cross  over,  while  their  bodies  and  armour, 
floating  down  to  Rome,  brought  news  of  the  victory,  even 
before  the  messengers  could  arrive  that  were  sent  with  the 
tidings.     These  conquests  were  followed  by  several  advan- 
tages over  the  Latins,  from  whom  he  took  many  towns, 
though  without  gaining  any  decisive  victory. 

6.  Tarquin,  having  thus  forced  his  enemies  into  submis 
sion,  was   resolved  not  to  let  his   subjects   grow  corrupt 
through  indolence.     He  therefore  undertook  and  perfected 
several  public  works  for  the  convenience  and  embellishment 
of  the  city.* 

7.  In  his  time  it  was,  that  the  augurs  came  into  a  great 
increase  of  reputation.     He  found  it  his  interest  to  promote 
the  superstition  of  the  people  ;  for  this  was,  in  fact,  but  to 
increase  their  obedience.     Tan'aquil,  his  wife,  was  a  great 
pretender  to  this  art;  but  Ac'cius  Nae'vius  was  the  most 
celebrated  adept  of  the  kind  ever  known  in  Rome.    8.  Upon 
a  certain  occasion,  Tarquin,  being  resolved  to  try  the  augur's 
skill,  asked  him,  whether  what  he  was  then  pondering  in 
his  mind  could  be  effected  ?    Nse'vius,  having  consulted  his 
auguries,  boldly   affirmed  that  it  might :    "  Why,   then," 
cries  the  king,  with  an  insulting  smile,  "  I  had  thoughts  of 
cutting  this  whetstone  with  a  razor."     "  Cut  boldly,"  re- 
plied the  augur ;  and  the  king  cut  it  through  accordingly. 
Thenceforward  nothing  was  undertaken  in  Rome  without 
eonsulting  the  augurs,  and  obtaining  their  advice  and  ap- 
probation. 

9.  Tarquin  was  not  content  with  a  kingdom,  withou* 
having  also  the  ensigns  of  royalty.  In  imitation  of  the 
Lyd'ian  kings,  he  assumed  a  crown  of  gold,  an  ivory 
throne,  a  sceptre  with  an  eagle  on  the  top,  and  robes  of 
purple.  It  was,  perlraps,  the  splendour  of  these  royalties 
that  first  raised  the  envy  of  the  late  king's  sons,  who  had 

*  Preparations  for  building  the  Capitol  were  made  in  this  reign.  The 
eity  was  likewise  fortified  with  stone  walls,  and  the  cloacte,  or  comni<»h 
6ew*rs,  constructed  by  the  munificence  of  this  prince.  (See  Iptrod.) 


TARQUIXIUS    PRISCUS.  79 

now,  for  above  thirty-seven  years,  quietly  submitted  to  his 
government.  His  design  also  of  adopting  Ser'vius  Tul'- 
lius,  his  son-in-law,  for  his  successor,  might  have  contri- 
buted to  inflame  their  resentment.  10.  Whatever  was  the 
cause  of  their  tardy  vengeance,  they  resolved  to  destroy 
him ;  and,  at  last,  found  means  to  effect  their  purpose,  by 
hiring  two  ruffians,  who,  demanding  to  speak  with  the  king, 
pretending  that  they  came  for  justice,  struck  him  dead  in 
his  palace  with  the  blow  of  an  axe.  The  lictors,  however, 
who  waited  upon  the  person  of  the  king,  seized  the  mur- 
derers as  they  were  attempting  to  escape,  and  put  them  to 
death :  but  the  sons  of  Ancus,  who  were  the  instigators, 
found  safety  in  flight. 

11.  Thus  fell  Lu'cius  Tarquin'ius,  surnamed  Pris'cus,  to 
distinguish  him  from  one  of  his  successors  of  the  same 
name.  He  was  eighty  years  of  age,  and  had  reigned  thirty- 
eight  years.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Who  was  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus? 

2.  What  occasioned  his  removal  to  Rome,  and  what  circumstance! 

attended  it? 

3.  Was  this  presage  fulfilled,  and  by  what  means1 

4.  In  what  manner  did  he  govern  7 

5.  Was  Tarquin  a  warlike  prince  ? 

6.  How  did  he  improve  his  victories'? 

7.  By  what  act  did  he  insure  the  obedience  of  his  subjects  ? 

8.  What  contributed  to  increase  the  reputation  of  the  augurs? 

9.  What  part  of  his  conduct  is  supposed  to  have  raised  the  envy  of 

the  late  king's  sons  ? 

10.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  envy  and  resentment  1 

11.  What  was  his  age,  and  how  long  did  he  reign? 

*  The  history  of  the  elder  Tarquin  presents  insuperable  difficulties. 
We  are  told  th;it  his  original  name  was  Lu'cumo;  but  that,  as  has  been 
mi  ntioned  in  the  Introduction,  was  the  Etrurian  designation  of  a  chief 
magistrate.  One  circumstance,  however,  is  unquestionable,  that  with 
him  began  the  greatness  and  the  splendour  of  the  Roman  city.  He 
commenced  those  vaulted  sewers  which  still  attract  the  admiration  of 
posterity ;  he  erected  the  first  circus  for  the  exhibition  of  public  specta- 
cles;  he  planned  the  Capitol,  and  commenced,  if  he  did  not  complete, 
the  first  city  wall.  The  tradition  that  he  was  a  Tuscan  prince,  appears 
to  be  well  founded ;  but  the  Corinthian  origin  of  his  family  is  very 
improbable. 


80  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FROM  THE    DEATH  OF  TARQUINIUS    PRISCUS  TO  THE    DEATH  OB 
SERVIUS  TULLIUS,  THE  SIXTH  KING  OF  ROME. U.  C.  176. 

1.  THE  report  of  the  murder  of  Tarquin  filled  all  his 
subjects  with  complaint  and  indignation ;  while  the  citizens 
ran  from  every  quarter  to  the  palace,  to  learn  the  truth  of 
the  account,  or  to  take  vengeance  on  the  assassins.  2.  In 
this  tumult,  Tan'aquil,  widow  of  the  late  king,  considering 
the  danger  she  must  incur,  in  case  the  conspirators  should 
succeed  to  the  crown,  and  desirous  of  seeing  her  son-in-law 
his  successor,  with  great  art  dissembled  her  sorrow,  as  well 
as  the  king's  death.  She  assured  the  people,  from  one  of 
the  windows  of  the  palace,  that  he  was  not  killed,  but  only 
stunned  by  the  blow  ;  that  he  would  shortly  recover ;  and 
that  in  the  meantime  he  had  deputed  his  power  to  Ser'vius 
Tul'lius,  his  son-in-law.  Ser'vius,  accordingly,  as  it'  had 
been  agreed  upon  between  them,  issued  from  the  palace, 
adorned  with  the  ensigns  of  royalty,  and,  preceded  by  his 
lictors,  went  to  despatch  some  affairs  that  related  to  the 
public  safety,  still  pretending  that  he  took  all  his  instruc- 
tions from  the  king.  This  scene  of  dissimulation  continued 
for  some  days,  till  he  had  made  his  party  good  among  the 
nobles ;  when,  the  death  of  Tarquin  being  publicly  ascer- 
tained, Ser'vius  came  to  the  crown,  solely  at  the  senate's 
appointment,  and  without  attempting  to  gain  the  suffrages 
of  the  people. 

3.  Ser'vius  was  the  son  of  a  bondwoman,  who  had  been    . 
taken  at  the  sacking  of  a  town  belonging  to  the  Latins,  and 
was  bom  whilst  his  mother  was  a  slave.     While  yet  an  in- 
fant in  his  cradle,  a  lambent  flame*  is  said  to  have  played 
round  his  head,  which  Tan'aquil  converted  into  an  omen  of 
future  greatness. 

4.  Upon  being  acknowledged  king,   he   determined  to 
make  a  great  change  in  the  Roman  constitution  by  admit- 
ting the  plebeians  to  a  participation  in  the  civil  government 
The  senate  was  too  weak  to  resist  the  change  when  it  was 
proposed,  but  it  submitted  with  great  reluctance.     5.  Ser'- 
vius  divided   all   the   Romans   into   classes  and   centuries 

*  A  flame  of  fire  gliding  about  without  doing  any  harm. 


SERVIUS    TULLIUS.  81 

according  to  their  -u  culth  and  the  amount  of  taxes  paid  to 
the  state.  The  number  of  centuries  in  the  first  class  nearly 
equalled  that  of  all  the  others ;  a  great  advantage  to  the 
plebeians ;  for  the  lower  classes  being  chiefly  clients  of  the 
patricians,  were  always  inclined  to  vote  according  to  the 
prejudices  or  interests  of  their  patrons. 

0.  The  classification  by  centuries  was  also  used  for  mili- 
tary purposes ;  the  heavy  armed  infantry  being  selected  from 
the  richer  classes  ;  the  light  troops,  whose  arms  and  armour 
could  be  obtained  at  less  expense,  were  levied  among  the 
lower  centuries. 

7.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  increase  or  decay  of  his  sub- 
jects, ind  their  fortunes,  he  instituted  another  regulation, 
which  he  called  a  lustrum.     By  this,  all  the  citizens  were 
t8%ssemble  in  the  Cam'pus  Mar'tius,*  in  complete  armour, 
and  in  their  respective  classes,  once  in  five  years,  and  there 
to  give  an  exact  account  of  their  families  and  fortune. 

8.  Having  enjoyed  a  long  reign,  spent  in  settling  the  do- 
mestic policy  of  the  state,  and  also  not  inattentive  to  foreign 
concerns,  he  conceived  reasonable  hopes  of  concluding  it 
with  tranquillity  and  ease.    He  even  had  thoughts  of  laying 
down  his  power ;  and,  having  formed  the  kingdom  into  a 
republic,  to  retire  into  obscurity ;  but  so  generous  a  design 
was  frustrated  ere  it  could  be  put  into  execution. 

9.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  to  secure  the  throne  by 
every  precaution,  he  had  married  his  two  daughters  to  the 
two  grandsons  of  Tarquin  ;  and  as  he  knew  that  the  women, 
as  well  as  their  intended  husbands,  were  of  opposite  dispo- 
sitions, he  resolved  to  cross  their  tempers^  by  giving  each 
to  him  of  a  contrary  turn  of  mind ;  her  thai  was  meek  and 
gentle  to  him  that  was  bold  and  furious  ;  her  that  was  un- 
governable and  proud,  to  him  that  was  remarkable  for  a 
contrary  character ;   by  this  he  supposed  that  each  would 
correct  the  failings  of  the  other,  and  that  the  mixture  would 
be  productive  of  concord.     10.  The  event,  however,  proved 
otherwise.     Lu'cius,   the  haughty  son-in-law,   soon   grew 
displeased  with  the  meekness  of  his  consort,  and  placed  his 
whole  affections  upon  his  brother's  wife,  Tullia,  who  an- 
swered  his    passion   with  sympathetic   ardour.     As   their 
wishes   were  ungovernable,  they   soon  resolved  to  break 

•  A  large  plain  at  Rome,  without  the  walls  of  the  city,  where  the 
Roman  youth  performed  their  exercises.  Cam'pus  is  the  Latin  word 
for  Hi-Id;  and  this  field  or  plain  was  called  Mar'tius,  because  it  was 
dedicated  to  Mars,  the  god  of  war. 


82  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

through  every  restraint  that  prevented  their  union ;  they 
both  undertook  to  murder  their  respective  consorts ;  they 
succeeded,  and  were  soon  after  married  together.  11.  A 
first  crime  ever  produces  a  second  ;  from  the  destruction  of 
their  consorts,  they  proceeded  to  conspiring  that  of  the 
king.  They  began  by  raising  factions  against  him,  alleging 
his  illegal  title  to  the  crown,  and  Lu'cius  claiming  it  as  his 
own,  as  heir  to  Tarquin.  At  length,  when  he  found  the 
senate  ripe  for  seconding  his  views,  he  entered  the  senate- 
house,  adorned  with  all  the  ensigns  of  royalty,  and,  placing 
himself  upon  the  throne,  began  to  harangue  them  on  the 
obscurity  of  the  king's  birth,  and  the  injustice  of  his  title. 
12.  While  he  was  yet  speaking,  Ser'vius  entered,  attended 
by  a  few  followers,  and  seeing  his  throne  thus  rudely  in- 
vaded, offered  to  push  the  usurper  from  his  seat ;  but  Tar- 
quin, being  in  the  vigour  of  youth,  threw  the  old  king  down 
the  steps  which  led  to  the  throne ;  some  of  his  adherents, 
who  were  instructed  for  that  purpose,  followed  him,  as  he 
was  feebly  attempting  to  get  to  the  palace,  dispatched  him 
by  the  way,  and  threw  his  body,  all  mangled  and  bleeding, 
as  a  public  spectacle,  into  the  street.  13.  In  the  mean  time, 
Tul'lia,  burning  with  impatience  for  the  event,  was  informed 
of  what  her  husband  had  done,  and,  resolving  to  be  among 
the  first  who  should  salute  him  as  monarch,  ordered  her 
chariot  to  the  senate-house.  But  as  her  charioteer  ap- 
proached the  place  where  the  body  of  the  old  king,  her 
father,  lay  exposed  and  bloody;  the  man,  amazed  at  the 
inhuman  spectacle,  and  not  willing  to  trample  upon  it  with 
his  horses,  offered  to  turn  another  way ;  this  serving  only 
to  increase  the  fierceness  of  her  anger,  she  threw  the  foot- 
stool at  his  headi  and  ordered  him  to  drive  over  the  body 
without  hesitation.* 

14.  This  was  the  end  of  Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  a  prince  of 
eminent  justice  and  moderation,  after  an  useful  and  prosper- 
ous reign  of  forty-four  years. 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  effect  had  the  murder  of  Tarquin  on  his  subjects  T 

2.  By  what  means  was  the  succession  assured  to  Servius  Tullius  ? 

*  The  blood  of  the  good  old  king  is  said  to  have  dyed  the  chariot 
wheels,  and  even  the  clothes  of  the  inhuman  daughter ;  from  that  time 
the  street  where  it  happened  was  called  vicu*  sceleratits,  the  wicked  or 
accursed  street 


TARQUIMUS    STJPERBUS.  83 

3.  Who  was  Servius  ? 

4.  What  was  the  chief  ohject  of  his  reign ! 

5.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  change  made  by  Servius  in  the  Roman 

constitution  T 
G.  Was  the  classification  by  centuries  used  for  civil  purposes  only  1 

7.  What  other  important  measure  did  he  adopt  1 

8.  What  hopes  did  he  entertain  in  his  old  age  1 

9.  By  what  means  did  he  hope  to  secure  tranquil  possession  of  the 

throne  ! 
10.  How  was  it  that  the  event  failed  to  answer  his  expectations? 

11  To  what  farther  crimes  did  the  commencement  lead  1 

12  What  followed? 

1 3  What  was  the  conduct  of  his  daughter  on  this  melancholy  occasion  1 
14.  Wtat  was  the  character  of  Servius,  and  how  long  did  he  reign  1 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  SERVIUS  TULLIUS  TO  THE  BANISHMENT 
OF  TARQUINIUS  SUPERBUS,  THE  SEVENTH  AND  LAST  KINO 
OF  ROME. U.  C.  220. 

1.  Lu'cius  TARQUIN'IUS,  afterwards  called  Super'bus,  or 
the  Proud,  having  placed  himself  upon  the  throne,  in  con- 
sequence of  this  horrid  deed,  was  resolved  to  support  his 
dignity  with  the  same  violence  with  which  it  was  acquired. 
Regardless  of  the  senate  or  the  people's  approbation,  he 
seemed  to  claim  the  crown  by  an  hereditary  right,  and  re- 
fused burial  to  the  late  king's  body,  under  pretence  of  his 
being  an  usurper.  2.  All  the  good  part  of  mankind,  how- 
ever, looked  upon  his  accession  with  detestation  and  hor- 
ror :  and  this  act  of  inefficient  cruelty  only  served  to  confirm 
their  hatred.  3.  Conscious  of  this,  he  ordered  all  such  as 
ne  suspested  to  have  been  attached  to  Ser'vius,  to  be  put  to 
death ;  and  fearing  the  natural  consequences  of  his  tyranny, 
he  increased  the  guard  round  his  person. 

4.  His  chief  policy  seems  to  have  been  to  keep  the  peo- 
ple always  employed  either  in  wars  or  public  works,  by 
which  means  he  diverted  their  attention  from  his  unlawful 
method  of  coming  to  the  crown.  He  first  marched  against 
the  Sab'ines,  who  refused  to  pay  him  obedience ;  and  he 
soon  reduced  them  to  submission.  5.  In  the  meantime, 
many  of  the  discontented  patricians,  abandoning  their  na- 
tive country,  took  refuge  in  Ga'bii,  a  city  of  Latium,  about 


ft-t  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

twelve  miles  from  Rome,  waiting  an  opportunity  to  take  up 
arms,  and  drive  Tarquin  from  his  throne.  To  escape  this 
danger.  Tarquin  had  recourse  to  the  following  stratagem. 
6.  He  caused  his  son  Sextus  to  counterfeit  desertion,  upon 
pretence  of  barbarous  usage,  and  to  seek  refuge  among  the 
inhabitants  of  the  place.  There,  by  artful  complaints  and 
studied  lamentations,  Sextus  so  prevailed  upon  the  pity  of 
the  people,  as  to  be  chosen  their  governor,  and,  soon  after, 
general  of  their  army.  7.  At  first,  in  every  engagement, 
he  appeared  successful ;  till,  at  length,  finding  himself  en- 
tirely possessed  of  the  confidence  of  the  state,  he  sent  a 
trusty  messenger  to  his  father  for  instructions.  Tarquin 
made  no  answer ;  but  taking  the  messenger  to  the  garden, 
he  cut  down  before  him  the  tallest  poppies.  Sextus  readily 
understood  the  meaning  of  this  reply,  and  found  means  to 
destroy  or  remove,  one  by  one,  the  principal  men  of  the 
city ;  taking  care  to  confiscate  their  effects  among  the 
people.  8.  The  charms  of  this  dividend  kept  the  giddy 
populace  blind  to  their  approaching  ruin,  till  they  found 
themselves  at  last  without  counsellors  or  head  ;  and,  in  the 
end,  fell  under  the  power  of  Tarquin,  without  even  striking 
a  blow.* 

9.  But,  while  he  was  engaged  in  wars  abroad,  he  took 
care  not  to  suffer  the  people  to  continue  in  idleness  at  home. 
He  undertook  to  build  the  Capitol,  the  foundation  of  which 
had  been  laid  in  a  former  reign  ;  and  an  extraordinary  event 
contributed  to  hasten  the  execution  of  his  design.  A  woman, 
in  strange  attire,  made  her  appearance  at  Rome,  and  came 
to  the  king,  offering  to  sell  nine  books,  which,  she  said, 
were  of  her  own  composing.  10.  Not  knowing  the  abili- 
ties of  the  seller,  or  that  she  was,  in  fact,  one  of  the  cele- 
brated Sybils,  whose  prophecies  were  never  found  to  fail, 
Tarquin  refused  to  buy  them.  Upon  this  she  departed,  and 
burning  three  of  her  books,  returned  again,  demanding  the 
same  price  for  the  six  remaining.  11.  Being  once  more 
despised  as  an  impostor,  she  again  departed,  and  burning 
three  more,  she  returned  with  the  remaining  three,  still 
asking  the  same  price  as  at  first.  Tarquin,  surprised  at  the 

*  This  story  is  manifestly  a  fiction  formed  from  the  Greek  traditions 
respecting  Zopy'nus  and  Thrasybu'lus.  It  is  decisively  contradicted  by 
the  fact,  that  a  treaty  for  the  union  of  the  Romans  and  Gabians,  on 
equitable  terms,  was  preserved  in  the  Capitol.  It  was  painted  on  a 
shield  covered  -vitti  the  hide  of  the  bull  which  had  been  sacrificed  at  thi 
ratification  of  the  league 


TARQUINHTS    SUPERBUS.  85 

inconsistency  of  her  behaviour,  consulted  the  augurs,  to  be 
advised  what  to  do.  These  much  blamed  him  for  not  buy- 
ing the  nine,  and  commanded  him  to  take  the  three  remain- 
ing, at  whatsoever  price  they  were  to  be  had.  12.  The 
woman,  says  the  historian,  after  thus  selling  and  delivering 
the  three  prophetic  volumes,  and  advising  him  to  have  a 
special  attention  to  what  they  contained,  vanished  from  be- 
fore him,  and  was  never  seen  after.  A  trick  this,  invented 
probably  by  Tarquin  himself,  to  impose  upon  the  people ;  and 
to  find  in  the  Sybil's  leaves  whatever  the  government  might 
require.  However  this  was,  he  chose  proper  persons  to 
keep  them,  who,  though  but  two  at  first,  were  afterwards 
increased  to  fifteen,  under  the  name  of  Quindecemviri.  The 
important  volumes  were  put  into  a  stone  chest,  and  a  vault 
in  the  newly  designed  building  was  thought  the  properest 
place  to  secure  them.* 

13.  The  people,  having  been  now  for  four  years  together 
employed  in  building  the  Capitol,  began,  at  last,  to  wish  for 
something  new  to  engage  them  ;  Tarquin,  therefore,  to 
satisfy  their  wishes,  proclaimed  war  against  the  Ru'tuli, 
upon  a,  frivolous  pretence  of  their  having  entertained  some 
malefactors,  whom  he  had  banished  ;  and  invested  their 
chief  city,  Ar'dea,  which  lay  about  sixteen  miles  from  Rome. 
14.  While  the  army  was  encamped  before  this  place,  the 
king's  son  Sextus  Tarquinius,  Collati'nus  a  noble  Roman, 
and  some  others,  sitting  in  a  tent  drinking  together,  the  dis- 
course turned  upon  wives,  each  man  preferring  the  beauty 
and  virtue  of  his  own.  Collati'nus  offered  to  decide  the 
dispute  by  putting  it  to  an  immediate  trial,  whose  wife 
should  be  found  possessed  of  the  greatest  beauty,  and  most 
sedulously  employed  at  that  very  hour :  being  heated  with 
wine,  the  proposal  was  relished  by  the  whole  company ; 
and,  taking  horse  without  delay,  they  posted  to  Rome, 
though  the  night  was  already  pretty  far  advanced. 

15.  There  they  found  Lucre'tia,  the  wife  of  Collati'nus, 
not  like  the  other  women  of  her  age,  spending  the  time  in 
ease  and  luxury,  but  spinning  in  the  midst  of  her  maids, 
and  cheerfully  portioning  out  their  tasks.  Her  modest 
beauty,  and  the  easy  reception  she  gave  her  husband  and 
his  friends,  so  charmed  them  all,  that  they  unanimously 
gave  her  the  preference,  but  kindled,  in  the  breast  of  Sextus 
Tarquin'ius,  a  detestable  passion,  which  occasioned  the 

*  The  Capitol,  or  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitoli'nus. 
II 


H6  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

grossest  insult  and  injury  to  Lucre'tia,  who,  detesting  the 
light,  and  resolving  to  destroy  herself  for  the  crime  of  an- 
other, demanded  her  husband  Collati'nus,  and  Spu'rius,  her 
father,  to  come  to  her ;  an  indelible  disgrace  having  befallen 
the  family.  16.  They  instantly  obeyed  the  summons, 
bringing  with  them  Valerius,  a  kinsman  of  her  father,  and 
Junius  Bru'tus,  a  reputed  idiot,  whose  father  Tarquin  had 
murdered,  and  who  had  accidentally  met  the  messenger  by 
the  way.  17.  Their  arrival  only  served  to  increase  Lucre  '- 
tia's  poignant  anguish ;  they  found  her  in  a  state  of  the 
deepest  desperation,  and  vainly  attempted  to  give  her  relief. 
After  passionately  charging  Sextus  Tarquin'ius  with  the 
basest  perfidy  towards  her  husband  and  injury  to  herself,  she 
drew  a  poinard  from  beneath  her  robe,  and  instantly  plung- 
ing it  into  her  bosom,  expired  without  a  groan.  18.  Struck 
with  sorrow,  pity,  and  indignation,  Spu'rius  and  Collati'nus 
gave  vent  to  their  grief;  but  Bru'tus,  drawing  the  poinard, 
reeking,  from  Lucre'tia's  wound,  and  lifting  it  up  towards 
heaven,  "  Be  witness,  ye  gods,"  he  cried,  "  that,  from  this 
moment,  I  proclaim  myself  the  avenger  of  the  chaste  Lu- 
cretia's  cause ;  from  this  moment  I  profess  myself  the 
enemy  of  Tarquin  and  his  wicked  house ;  from  henceforth 
this  life,  while  life  continues,  shall  be  employed  in  opposi- 
tion to  tyranny,  and  for  the  happiness  and  freedom  of  my 
much-loved  country."  19.  A  new  amazement  seized  the 
hearers  :  he,  whom  they  had  hitherto  considered  as  an  idiot, 
now  appearing,  in  his  real  character,  the  friend  of  justice, 
and  of  Rome.  He  told  them,  that  tears  and  lamentations 
were  unmanly,  when  vengeance  called  so  loudly ;  and,  de- 
livering the  poinard  to  the  rest,  imposed  the  same  oath  upon 
them  which  he  himself  had  just  taken. 

20.  Ju'nius  Brutus  was  the  son  of  Marcus  .Tu'nius,  who 
was  put  to  death  by  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  the  grandson 
of  Tarquin  the  elder.     He  had  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion from  his  father,  and  had,  from  nature,  strong  sense  and 
an  inflexible  attachment  to  virtue ;  but  knowing  that  Tar- 
quin had  murdered    his   father  and  his  eldest  brother,  he 
counterfeited  a  fool,  in  order  to  escape  the  same  danger, 
and   thence    obtained   the  surname  of  Bru'tus.     Tarquin, 
thinking  his  folly  real,  despised  the  man ;  and  having  pos- 
sessed himself  of  his  estate,  kept  him  as  an  idiot  in   his 
house,  merely  with  a  view  of  making  sport  for  his  children. 

21.  Brutus,  however,  only  waited   this    opportunity  to 
avenge  the  cause  of  his  family.     He  ordered   Lucre'tia's 


TARQljJMUS    &UPERBUS.  87 

dead  body  to  be  brought  out  to  view,  and  exposing  it  in  the 
public  forum,  inflamed  the  ardour  of  the  citizens  by  a  dis- 
play of  the  horrid  transaction.  He  obtained  a  decree  of  the 
senate,  that  Tarquin  and  his  family  should  be  for  ever 
banished  from  Rome,  and  that  it  should  be  capital  for  any 
to  plead  for,  or  to  attempt  his  future  return.  22.  Thus  this 
monarch,  who  had  now  reigned  twenty-five  years,  being 
expelled  his  kingdom,  went  to  take  refuge  with  his  family 
at  Ci'ra,  a  little  city  of  Etru'ria.  In  the  mean,  time  the 
Roman  army  made  a  truce  with  the  enemy,  and  Bru'tus  was 
proclaimed  deliverer  of  the  people. 

Thus  ended  with  Tarquin,  after  a  continuance  of  two 
hundred  and  forty-five  years,  the  regal  state  of  Rome. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Lucius  Tarquinius  at  the  commencement 

of  his  reign  1 

2.  Was  his  claim  quietly  acquiesced  in  ? 

3.  What  means  did  he  adopt  for  his  security  1 

4.  By  what  means  did  he  divert  the  people's  attention  from  the  un- 

lawful manner  in  which  he  acquired  the  crown  1 

5.  What  happened  in  the  mean  time  1 

6.  To  what  mean  artifice  did  he  have  recourse  t 

7.  How  did  Sextus  accomplish  his  father's  design  1 

8.  What  were  the  elfects  of  this  measure  1 

9.  In  what  way  did  he  employ  his  subjects  at  home  during  his  ab- 

sence, and  what  extraordinary  event  occurred  1 

10.  Did  he  accept  her  offer! 

11.  Was  her  second  application  successful,  and  what  followed? 

12.  What  hecame  of  the  Sybil,  and  what  is  the  general  opinion  re- 

specting this  transaction  1 

13.  Upon  wnat  pretence  did  Tarquin  proclaim  war  against  the  Kutuli? 

14.  What  remarkable  event  took  place  at  the  siege  of  Ardeal 

1 5.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  intemperate  frolic  ! 

16.  How  did  Lucretia  support  the  loss  of  her  honour  1 

17.  Did  they  obey  her  summons,  and  who  did  they  bring  with  them  * 

18.  What  was  the  consequence  of  their  arrival  ? 

1 9.  What  effect  had  this  dreadful  catastrophe  on  those  present  ? 

20.  How  was  this  unexpected  resolution  received  1 

21.  Give  some  account  of  Brutus. 

22.  For  what  reason,  and  by  what  means,  did  Brutus  endeavour  th« 

abolition  of  royalty  ? 

23.  What  became  of  Tarquin  after  his  expulsion  1 


88  HISTORY  OF  ROME. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

FROM    THE    BANISHMENT    OF  TARQUIN,    TO    THE   APPOINTMENT 
OF  THE  DICTATOR. U.  C.  245. 

1.  THE  regal  power  being  overthrown,  a  republican  form 
of  government  was  substituted  in  its  room.     The  senate, 
however,  reserved  by  far  the  greatest  share  of  the  authority 
to  themselves,  and  decorated  their  own  body  with  all  the 
spoils  of  deposed  monarchy.     The  centuries  of  the  people 
chose  from  among  the  senators,  instead  of  a  king,  two  an- 
nual magistrates,  whom  they  called  CONSULS,*  with  power 
equal  to  that  of  the  regal,  and  with  the  same  privileges  and 
the  same  ensigns  of  authority. 

2.  Bru'tus,  the  deliverer  of  his  country,  and  Collati'nus, 
the  husband  of  Lucre 'tia,  were  chosen  the  first  consuls  in 
Rome. 

3.  But  this   new  republic,  however,  which  seemed   so 
grateful  to  the  people,  had  like  to  have  been  destroyed  in 
its  very  commencement.     A  party  was  formed  in  favour  of 
Tarquin.     Some  young  men  of  the  principal  families  in  the 
state,  who   had   been   educated   about   the   king,  and  had 
shared  in  all  the  luxuries  and  pleasures  of  the  court,  under- 
took to  re-establish  monarchy.     4.  This  party  secretly  in- 
creased every  day ;  and  what  may  create  surprise,  the  sons 
of  Bru'tus  himself,  and  the  Aqui'lii,  the  nephews  of  Colla- 
ti'nus, were  among  the  number.     5.  Tarquin,  who  was  in- 
formed of  these  intrigues  in  his  favour,  sent  ambassadors 
from  Etru'ria  to  Rome,  under  a  pretence  of  reclaiming  the 
estates  of  the  exiles ;  but,  in  reality,  with  a  design  to  give 
spirit  to  his  faction.     6.  The  conspiracy  was  discovered  by 
a  slave  who  had  accidentally  hid  himself  in  the  room  where 
the  conspirators  used  to  assemble.    7.  Few  situations  could 
have  been  more  terribly  affecting  than  that  of  Bru'tus :  a 
father  placed  as  a  judge  upon  the  life  and  death  of  his  own 

*  These  were  first  called  Praetors,  next  Juclices,  and  afterwards  Con- 
suls: a  Consulendo,  from  their  consulting  the  good  of  the  Common 
wealth.  They  had  the  royal  ornaments,  as  the  golden  crown,  sceptre, 
purple  robes,  lictors,  and  the  ivory  and  curule  chairs.  The  crowns  and 
sceptres  were,  however,  used  only  on  extraordinary  days  of  triumph.- 
See  Introduction. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  89 

children,  impelled  by  justice  to  condemn,  and  by  nature  to 
spare  them.  8.  The  young  men  pleaded  nothing  for  them- 
selves ;  but,  with  conscious  guilt,  awaited  their  sentence  in 
silence  and  agony.  9.  The  other  judges  who  were  present 
felt  all  the  pangs  of  nature  ;  Collati'nus  wept,  and  Vale'rius 
could  not  repress  his  sentiments  of  pity.  Brutus,  alone, 
seemed  to  have  lost  all  the  softness  of  humanity ;  and,  with 
a  stern  countenance  and  a  tone  of  voice  that  marked  his 
gloomy  resolution,  demanded  of  his  sons  if  they  could 
make  any  defence,  to  the  crimes  with  which  they  had  been 
charged.  This  demand  he  made  three  several  times ;  but 
receiving  no  answer,  he  at  length  turned  himself  to  the  exe- 
cutioner :  "  Now,"  cried  he,  "  it  is  your  part  to  perform 
the  rest."  10.  Thus  saying,  he  again  resumed  his  seat 
with  an  air  of  determined  majesty ;  nor  could  all  the  senti- 
ments of  paternal  pity,  the  imploring  looks  of  the  people, 
nor  yet  the  tears  of  his  sons,  who  were  preparing  for  exe- 
cution, alter  the  tenor  of  his  resolution.  Bru'tus,  unmoved 
by  any  motive  but  the  public  good,  pronounced  upon  them 
the  sentence  of  death,  and  by  his  office  was  obliged  to  see  it 
put  in  execution.  The  prisoners  were  scourged  and  then 
beheaded,  and  Bru'tus  beheld  the  cruel  spectacle ;  but,  in 
spite  of  his  stoic  firmness,  could  not  stifle  the  sentiments  of 
nature  which  he  sacrificed  to  the  necessity  of  his  office. 

11.  Tarquin's  hopes  of  an  insurrection  in  his  favour  be 
ing  thus  overset,  he  now  resolved  to  force  himself  upon  his 
former  throne  by  foreign  assistance.    He  prevailed  upon  the 
Veians  to  assist  him,  and,  with  a  considerable  army,  ad- 
vanced towards  Rome. 

12.  The  consuls  were  not  remiss  in  preparations  to  op- 
pose him.     Vale'rius  commanded  the  foot,  and  Bru'-  Cu.  c. 
tus  being  appointed  to  head  the  cavalry,  went  out  to  £246. 
meet  him  on  the  Roman  border.     13.  A'runs,  the  son  of 
Tarquin,  who  commanded  the  cavalry  for  his  father,  seeing 
Bru'tus  at  a  distance,  resolved,  by  one  great  attempt,  to  de- 
cide the  fate  of  the  day  before  the  engaging  of  the  armies  ; 
when,  spurring  his  horse  he  flew  to  him  with  fury.     Bru'- 
tus perceived  his  approach,  and  singled  out  from  the  ranks, 
they  met  with  such  ungoverned  rage,  that,  eager  only  to  as- 
sail, and  thoughtless  of  defending,  they  both  fell  dead  upon 
the  field  together.     14.  A  bloody  battle  ensued,  with  equal 
slauijhtiT  on  both  sides  :  but  the  Romans,  remaining  in  pos- 
session of  the  field  of  battle,  claimed  the  victory.     In  con 
sequence,  Vale'rius  returned  in  triumph  to  Rome. 

H  2 


90  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

15.  In  the  mean  time  Tarquin,  no  way  intimidated  by 
his  misfortunes,  prevailed  upon  Porsen'na,  one  of  the  kingg 
of  Etruria,  to  espouse  his  cause,  and  in  person  to  undertake 
his  quarrel.  16.  This  prince,  equally  noted  for  courage 
and  conduct  marched  directly  to  Rome,  Avith  a  numerous 
army,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city ;  while  the  terror  of  hisr 
name  and  arms  filled  all  ranks  of  the  people  with  dismay 
The  siege  was  carried  on  with  vigour;  a  furious  attack  Avas 
made  upon  the  place ;  the  consuls  opposed  in  vain,  and 
were  carried  off  wounded  from  the  field  ;  while  the  Romans, 
flying  in  great  consternation,  were  pursued  by  the  enemy  to 
the  bridge,  over  which  both  victors  and  vanquished  were 
about  to  enter  the  city  in  the  confusion.  17.  All  noAv  ap- 
peared lost,  when  Hora'tius  Co'cles,  who  had  been  placed 
there  as  sentinel  to  defend  it,  opposed  himself  to  the  torrent 
of  the  enemy,  and,  assisted  only  by  two  more,  for  some 
time  sustained  the  whole  fury  of  the  assault,  till  the  bridge 
was  broken  doAvn  behind  him.  When  he  found  the  com- 
munication thus  cut  oflf,  plunging  Avith  his  arms  into  the  tor- 
rent of  the  Tiber,  he  SAvam  back  Arictorious  to  his  felloAV- 
soldiers,  and  Avas  received  Avith  just  applause.* 

18.  Still,  hoAveArer,  Porsen'na  Avas  determined  upon  taking 
the  city  ;  and  though  five  hundred  of  his  men  Avere  slain  in 
a  sally  of  the  Romans,  he  reduced  it  to  the  greatest  straits, 
and  turning  the  siege  into  a  blockade,  resolved  to  take  it  by 
famine.  19.  The  distress  of  the  besieged  soon  began  to  be 
insufferable,  and  all  things  seemed  to  threaten  a  speedy  sur- 
render, when  another  act  of  fierce  bravery,  still  superior  to 
that  Avhich  had  saved  the  city  before,  again  brought  about 
its  safety  and  freedom. 

20.  Mu'tius,  a  youth  of  undaunted  courage,  was  resolved 
to  rid  his  country  of  an  enemy  that  so  continued  to  oppress 
it ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  disguised  in  the  habit  of  an  Etru'- 
rian  peasant,  entered  the  camp  of  the  enemy,  resolving  to 
die  or  to  kill  the  king.  21.  With  this  resolution  he  made 
up  to  the  place  Avhere  Rorsen'na  Avas  paying  his  troops, 
Avith  a  secretary  by  his  side ;  but  mistaking  the  latter  for 
the  king,  he  stabbed  him  to  the  heart,  and  was  immediately 
apprehended  and  brought  into  the  royal  presence.  22.  Up- 

*  For  this  heroic  act,  Hora'tius  was  crowned  on  his  return  ;  his  statue 
was  erected  in  the  temple  of  Vulcan ;  as  much  land  was  given  him  as  a 
plough  could  surround  with  a  furrow  in  one  day,  and  a  tax  was  volun- 
tarily imposed  to  make  him  a  present  in  some  degree  suitable  to  the  ser- 
vice he  had  performed. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  91 

on  Porsen'na's  demanding  who  he  was,  and  the  cause  of  so 
heinous  an  action,  Mu'tius,  without  reserve,  informed  him 
of  his  country  and  his  design,  and  at  the  same  time  thrust- 
ing his  right  hand  into  a  fire  that  was  burning  upon  the  al- 
tar before  him,  "  You  see,"  cried  he,  "  how  little  I  regard 
the  severest  punishment  your  cruelty  can  inflict.  A  Roman 
knows  not  only  how  to  act,  but  how  to  suffer ;  I  am  not  the 
only  person  you  have  to  fear  ;  three  hundred  Roman  youths, 
like  me,  have  conspired  your  destruction ;  therefore  prepare 
for  their  attempts."  23.  Porsen'na,  amazed  at  so  much  in- 
trepidity, had  too  noble  a  mind  not  to  acknowledge  merit, 
though  found  in  an  enemy  ;  he  therefore  ordered  him  to  be 
safely  conducted  back  to  Rome,  and  offered  the  besieged 
conditions  of  peace.*  24.  These  were  readily  accepted  on 
their  side,  being  neither  hard  nor  disgraceful,  except  that 
twenty  hostages  were  demanded ;  ten  young  men,  and  as 
many  virgins,  of  the  best  families  in  Rome.  25.  But  even 
in  this  instance  also,  as  if  the  gentler  sex  were  resolved  to 
be  sharers  in  the  desperate  valour  of  the  times,  Cle'lia,  one 
of  the  hostages,  escaping  from  her  guards,  and  pointing  out 
the  way  to  the  rest  of  her  female  companions,  swam  over 
the  Tiber  on  horseback,  amidst  showers  of  darts  from  the 
enemy,  and  presented  herself  to  the  consul.  26.  This  ma- 
gistrate, fearing  the  consequences  of  detaining  her,  sent  her 
back ;  upon  which  Porsen'na,  not  to  be  outdone  in  genero- 
sity, not  only  gave  her  liberty,  but  permitted  her  to  choose 
such  of  the  hostages  of  the  opposite  sex  as  she  should  think 
fit,  to  attend  her.  27.  On  her  part,  she,  with  all  the  mo- 
desty of  a  Roman  virgin,  chose  only  such  as  were  under 
fourteen,  alleging,  that  their  tender  age  was  least  capable 
of  sustaining  the  rigours  of  slavery.!  28.  The  year  after 
the  departure  of  Porsen'na,  the  Sab'ines  invading  the  Ro- 
man territories,  committed  great  devastations.  The  war 
that  ensued  was  long  and  bloody ;  but  at  length  the  Sab'ines 

•  *  From  this  time  he  obtained  the  additional  name  of  Scsevola,  or  left- 
handed*  from  his  having  lost  the  use  of  his  right  hand  by  the  fire. 

•(•  National  pride  induced  the  Romans  to  conceal  the  fact  that  the  city 
was  surrendered  to  Porsenna;  Tacitus,  however,  expressly  declares  that 
it  was,  and  Pliny  informs  us  of  the  severe  conditions  imposed  by  the  con- 
queror; one  of  the  articles  prohibited  them  from  using  iron  except  for 
the  purposes  of  agriculture.  Plutarch,  in  his  Roman  Questions,  declares 
that  there  was  a  time  when  the  Romans  paid  a  tenth  of  their  produce  to 
the  Etrurian:),  but  that  they  were  freed  from  the  disgraceful  tribute  by 
Hercules ;  this  tradition  appears  to  refer  to  the  conquest  of  the  city  by 
Porsenna. 


92  HISTORY    01'    HOME. 

were  compelled  to  purchase  a  peace,  with  corn,  money,  and 
the  cession  of  part  of  their  territory. 

29.  Tarquin,  by  means  of  his  son-in-law,  Man'lius,  once 
more  stirred  up  the  Latins  to  espouse  his  interest,  and  took 
the  most  convenient  opportunity  when  the  plebeians  were  at 
variance  with  the  senators  concerning  the  payment  of  their 
debts.*  These  refused  to  go  to  war,  unless  their  debts  were 
remitted  upon  their  return  :  so  that  the  consuls,  finding  their 
authority  insufficient,  offered  the  people  to  elect  a  temporary 
magistrate,  who  should  have  absolute  power,  not  only  over 
all  ranks  of  the  state,  but  even  over  the  laws  themselves. 
To  this  the  plebeians  readily  consented,  willing  to  give  up 
their  own  power  for  the  sake  of  abridging  that  of  their  su- 
periors. 30.  In  consequence  of  this,  Lar'tius  Avas  created 
the  first  dictator  of  Rome,  for  so  was  this  high  office  called, 
being  nominated  to  it  by  his  colleague  in  the  consulship. 
31.  Thus  the  people,  who  could  not  bear  the  very  name  of 
king,  readily  submitted  to  a  magistrate  possessed  of  much 
greater  power ;  so  much  do  the  names  of  things  mislead  us, 
and  so  little  is  any  form  of  government  irksome  to  the  peo- 
ple, when  it  coincides  with  their  prejudices. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  form  of  government  was  substituted  for  the  regall 

2.  Who  were  the  first  consuls  1 

3.  Did  this  new  government  appear  stable  at  its  commencement  1 

4.  Was  this  party  formidable,  and  who  were  the  most  remarkable  of 

its  members  ? 

5.  What  share  had  Tarquin  in  this  conspiracy  ? 

6.  By  what  means  was  it  discovered  ! 

7.  In  what  unhappy  situation  was  Brutus  placed  1 

8.  What  had  the  criminals  to  say  in  extenuation  of  their  offences ! 

9.  What  effect  had  this  scene  on  the  judges  ? 

10.  Did  not  paternal  affection  cause  him  to  relent  1 

11.  What  measures  did  Tarquin  next  pursue  1 

12.  What  steps  were  taken  to  resist  him  1 

*  Besides  this,  by  his  emissaries,  he  engaged  the  meaner  sort  of  citi- 
zens and  the  slaves  in  a  conspiracy.  The  former  were,  at  an  appointed 
time,  to  seize  the  ramparts,  and  the  latter  to  murder  their  masters  at  the 
same  instant.  The  gates  were  then  to  be  opened  to  the  Tar'quins,  who 
were  to  enter  Rome  while  it  was  yet  reeking  with  the  blood  of  the 
senators.  This  conspiracy  was  discovered  to  the  consul  by  two  o 
Tarquin's  principal  agents. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  93 

I3»  What  remarkable  event  attended  the  meeting  of  the  armies! 

14.  Did  this  decide  the  fate  of  the  day  1 

15.  Did  Tarquin  relinquish  his  hopes'? 

16.  In  what  manner  did  Porsenna  attempt  the  restoration  of  Tarquin? 

1 7.  By  what  heroic  action  was  the  city  saved  1 

18.  Did  Porsenna  persevere  in  his  attempt! 

1 9.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

20.  What  was  this  act  of  heroism ! 

21.  Did  he  succeed  ! 

22.  What  followed ! 

23.  How  did  Porsenna  act  on  the  occasion! 

24.  Were  these  conditions  accepted ! 

25.  What  remarkable  circumstance  attended  the  delivery  of  the  hostages! 

26.  How  did  the  consul  act  on  the  occasion ! 

27.  Whom  did  she  choose? 

28.  What  happened  after  the  departure  of  Porsenna  ! 

29.  What  measures  did  Tarquin  next  resort  to! 

30.  What  was  the  consequence  ! 

31.  What  inference  may  be  drawn  from  this! 


CHAPTER  X. 

FROM  THE  CREATION  OF  THE  DICTATOR,  TO  THE 
ELECTION  OF  THE  TRIBUNES. U.  C.  255. 

1.  LAR'TIUS,  being  created  dictator,*  entered  upon  his 
office,  surrounded  with  lictors  and  all  the  ensigns  of  ancient 
royalty ;  and,  seated  upon  a  throne  in  the  midst  of  the  peo- 
ple, ordered  the  levies  to  be  made,  in  the  manner  of  the 
kings  of  Rome.  2.  The  populace  looked  with  terror  upon 
a  magistrate  whom  they  had  invested  with  uncontrollable 
power,  and  each  went  peaceably  to  range  himself  under  his 
respective  standard.  3.  Thus  going  forth  to  oppose  the 
enemy,  he,  after  concluding  a  truce  for  a  year,  returned  with 
his  army,  and,  in  six  months,  laid  down  the  dictatorship,  with 
the  reputation  of  having  exercised  it  with  blameless  lenity. 

4.  But,  though  for  this  time  the  people  submitted  to  be 
led  forth,  they  yet  resolved  to  free  themselves  from  the 

*  The  power  of  the  dictator  was  absolute ;  he  could,  of  his  own  will, 
make  peace  or  war,  levy  forces,  lead  them  forth,  disband  them,  and  even 
dispense  with  the  existing  laws,  at  his  pleasure,  without  consulting  the 
senate. 


94  HISTORY    Of    K03IK. 

yoke  ;  and,  though  they  could  not  get  their  grievances  re 
dressed,  yet  they  determined  to  fly  from  those  whom  they 
could  not  move  to  compassion.  The  grievances,  therefore, 
continuing,  they  resolved  to  quit  a  city  which  gave  them  no 
shelter,  and  to  form  a  new  establishment  without  its  limits. 
They,  therefore,  under  the  conduct  of  a  plebe'ian,  named 
Sicin'ius  Bellu'tus,  retired  to  a  mountain,  hence  called  the 
Mons  Sacer,  within  three  miles  of  Rome. 

5.  Upon  the  news  of  this  defection,  the  city  was  filled 
with  tumult  and  consternation :  those  who  wished  well  to 
the  people  made  every  attempt  to  scale  the  walls,  in  order 
to  join  it.  6.  The  senate  was  not  less  agitated  than  the 
rest ;  some  were  for  violent  measures,  and  repelling  force 
Dy  force ;  others  were  of  opinion  that  gentler  arts  were  to 
be  used,  and  that  even  a  victory  over  such  enemies  would 
be  worse  than  a  defeat.  At  length,  it  was  resolved  to  send 
a  messenger,  entreating  the  people  to  return  home,  and 
declare  their  grievances ;  promising,  at  the  same  time,  an 
oblivion  of  all  that  had  passed. 

7.  This  message  not  succeeding,  Mene'nias  Agrip'pa,  one 
of  the  wisest  and  best  of  the  senators,  was  of  opinion,  that 
the  demands  of  the  people  were  to  be  complied  with.  It 
was  resolved,  therefore,  to  enter  into  a  treaty,  and  to  make 
them  such  offers  as  should  induce  them  to  return.  8.  Ten 
commissioners  were  deputed.  The  dignity  and  popularity 
of  the  ambassadors  procured  them  a  very  respectful  recep- 
tion among  the  soldiers,  and  a  conference  began.  They 
employed  all  their  oratory ;  while  Sicin'ius  and  Lu'cius 
Ju'nius,  who  were  speakers  for  the  soldiery,  aggravated 
their  distresses  with  all  that  masculine  eloquence  which  is 
the  child  of  nature. 

9.  The  conference  had  now  continued  for  a  long  time, 
when  Mene'nius  Agrip'pa,  who  had  been  originally  a  ple- 
be'ian himself,  a  shrewd  man,  and  who,  consequently,  knew 
what  kind  of  eloquence  was  most  likely  to  please  the  people, 
addressed  them  with  that  celebrated  fable  of  the  body  and 
the  members,  which  is  so  finely  told  by  Livy.* 

*  Titus  Livius  was  horn  at  Pad'ua  (the  ancient  Patavi'nus)  in  the 
year  of  Rome,  695.  He  wrote  the  Roman  history,  from  the  foundation 
of  the  city  to  the  year  744,  in  140  books,  of  which  only  35  remain  and 
some  of  them  are  still  imperfect.  Though  Livy  was  treated  with  great 
marks  of  respect  by  the  emperor  Augustus,  in  whose  reign  he  flourished, 
yet  he  extolled  Pompey  so  highly,  that  Augustus  used  to  call  him  a 
Pompeian ;  and  though  he  was  by  no  means  backward  in  bestowing 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  95 

10.  This  fable,  the  application  of  which  is  obvious,  had 
an  instantaneous  effect  upon  the  people.  They  unanimously 
cried  out,  that  Agrip'pa  should  lead  them  back  to  Rome ; 
ind  were  making  preparations  to  follow  him,  when  Lu'cius 
Junius  withheld  them  ;  alleging,  that  though  they  ought 
gratefully  to  acknowledge  the  kind  offers  of  the  senate,  yet 
they  had  no  safeguard  against  their  future  resentments  ;  that 
therefore  it  was  necessary,  for  the  security  of  the  people,  to 
have  certain  officers  created  annually  from  among  them- 
selves, who  should  have  power  to  give  redress  to  such  of 
them  as  should  be  injured,  and  plead  the  cause  of  the  com- 
munity. 11.  The  people,  who  are  generally  of  opinion 
with  the  last  speaker,*  highly  applauded  this  proposal,  with 
which,  however,  the  commissioners  had  not  power  to  com- 
ply ;  they,  therefore,  sent  to  Rome  to  take  the  instructions 
of  the  senate,  who,  distracted  with  divisions  among  them- 
selves, and  harassed  by  complaints  from  without,  were 
resolved  to  have  peace,  at  whatever  price  it  should  be  ob- 
tained ;  accordingly,  as  if  with  one  voice,  they  consented  to 
the  creation  of  these  new  officers,  who  were  called  Tri- 
bunes^ of  the  People. 

12.  The  tribunes  of  the  people  were  at  first  five  in  num- 
ber, though  afterwards  their  body  was  increased  by  five 
more.  They  were  always  annually  elected  by  the  people, 
and  almost  always  from  their  body.  They  at  first  had  their 
seats  placed  before  the  doors  of  the  senate  house,  and,  when 
called  in,  they  were  to  examine  every  decree,  annulling  it 
by  the  word  Fe/o,  "  I  forbid  it ;"  or  confirming  it  by  sign- 
ing the  letter  71,  which  gave  it  validity.  13.  This  new 
office  being  thus  instituted,  all  things  were  adjusted  both  on 
the  one  side  and  the  other,  and  the  people,  after  having 
sacrificed  to  the  gods  of  the  mountain,  returned  back  once 
more  in  triumph  to  Rome. 

praises  on  Brutus  and  Cassius,  the  enemies  of  Augustus,  yet  it  did  not 
interrupt  their  friendship.  Livy  died  at  his  native  city,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  aged  76  years. 

*  This  is  a  severe  satire  upon  the  judgment  of  the  multitude ;  indeed, 
it  seems  intended  to  show,  that  when  the  passions  are  appealed  to,  th» 
judgment  is  not  much  consulted  ;  and  therefore,  that  little  reliance  ought 
to  be  placed  on  acts  resulting  from  popular  acclamation. 

f  They  were  called  tribunes,  because  chosen  by  the  tribes.  The  first 
tribunes  were  L.  Ju'nius  Bru'tus,  C.  Sicin'ius  Bellu'tus,  Pub'liu* 
Licin'ius,  C.  Licin'ius,  and  Sp.  Icil'ius  Ruga. 


96  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  were  the  first  acts  of  the  dictator? 

2.  Were  his  decrees  peaceably  obeyed  ? 

3.  What  were  his  exploits? 

4.  \Vere  the  discontents  of  the  people  entirely  appeased  1 

5.  How  was  the  news  of  this  defection  received  1 

6.  What  was  its  effect  on  the  senate? 

7.  Was  this  offer  accepted  ? 

8.  In  what  manner  was  this  done,  and  how  weie  they  received  ? 

9.  What  was  the  result  of  this  conference  ? 

10.  What  fable  was  addressed  to  the  people? 

11.  What  effect  did  this  apology  produce? 

12.  How  was  this  obstacle  removed  ? 

13.  Who  were  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  and  what  was  their  authority  1 

14.  Did  this  new  regulation  answer  the  desired  end  ? 


CHAPTER  XI. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM  THE  CREATION  OF  THE  TRIBUNES,  TO  THE 
APPOINTMENT  OF  THE  DECEMVIRI. U.  C.  260. 

1.  DURING  the  late  separation,  all  tillage  had  been  entirely 
neglected,  and  a  famine  was  the  consequence  the  ensuing 
season.  2.  The  senate  did  all  that  lay  in  their  power  to 
remedy  the  distress ;  but  the  people,  pinched  with  want 
and  willing  to  throw  the  blame  on  any  but  themselves, 
ascribed  the  whole  of  their  distress  to  the  avarice  of  the 
patricians,  who,  having  purchased  all  the  corn,  as  was 
alleged,  intended  to  indemnify  themselves  for  the  abolition 
of  debts,  by  selling  it  out  to  great  advantage.  3.  But  plenty 
soon  after  appeased  them  for  a  time.  A  fleet  of  ships,  laden 
with  corn,  from  Sicily,  once  more  raised  their  spirits. 

4.  But  Coriola'nus*  incurred  their  resentment,  by  insist- 
ng  that  the  corn  should  not  be  distributed  till  the  grievances 
;>f  the  senate  were  removed.  For  this,  the  tribunes  sum- 

*  This  man's  name  was  originally  Ca'ius  Ma/cius.  He  received  the 
lurname  of  Coriola'nus  as  a  reward  for  having,  by  his  valour,  occasioned 
the  talcing  of  Cori'oli,  the  capital  of  the  Vol'sci.  Previous  to  the  oc- 
rurrence  mentioned  in  the  text,  he  had  been  condemned  to  death  by  the 
tribunes,  but  saved  by  the  interference  of  his  friends. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH. 


97 


Banishment  of  Coriola'nus. 

moned  liim  to  a  trial  before  the  people.  5.  When  the  ap- 
pointed day  was  come,  all  persons  were  filled  with  the 
greatest  expectations,  and  a  vast  concourse  from  the  adjacent 
country  assembled  and  filled  the  forum.  Coriola'nus  pre- 
sented himself  before  the  people,  with  a  degree  of  intre- 
pidity that  merited  better  fortune.  His  graceful  person,  his 
persuasive  eloquence,  and  the  cries  of  those  whom  he  had 
saved  from  the  enemy,  inclined  the  auditors  to  relent.  6.  BuU 
being  unable  to  answer  what  was  alleged  against  him  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  people,  and  utterly  confounded  with  a 
new  charge,  of  having  embezzled  the  plunder  of  rfntium, 
the  tribunes  immediately  took  the  votes,  and  Coriola'nus 
was  condemned  to  perpetual  exile. 

7.  This  sentence  against  their  bravest  defender  struck  the 
senate  with  sorrow,  consternation  and  regret.  Coriola'nus 
alone,  in  the  midst  of  the  tumult,  seemed  an  unconcerned 
spectator.  8.  He  returned  home,  followed  by  the  lamenta- 
tions of  the  most  respectable  senators  and  citizens,  to  take 
leave  of  his  wife,  his  children,  and  his  mother,  Vetu'ria. 
Thus,  recommending  all  to  the  care  of  Heaven,  he  left  the 
city,  without  followers  or  fortune,  to  take  refuge  with  Tullus 
At'tius,*  a  man  of  great  power  among  the  Volsci,  who  took 
him  under  his  protection,  and  espoused  his  quarrel. 

9.  Some  pretence  was  necessary  to  induce  the  Volsci  to 

*  Tullus  At'tius  was  a  most  determined  enemy  to  the  Romans,  and 
to  Coriola'nus  in  particular,  for  the  share  he  had  in  humbling  the  power 
of  the  Vol'sri.  It  was  probably  more  from  a  hope  of  revenge,  by  moans 
of  this  valiant  soldier,  than  any  noble  principle,  that  he  offered  him  hi* 
countenance  and  protection. 

I 


98  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

break  the  league  which  had  been  made  with  Rome  ;  and, 
for  this  purpose,  Tullus  sent  many  of  his  citizens  thither, 
apparently  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  some  games  at  that 
time  celebrating ;  but  gave  the  senate  private  information, 
that  the  strangers  had  dangerous  intentions  of  burning  the 
city.  10.  This  had  the  desired  effect ;  the  senate  issued 
an  order,  that  all  strangers,  whoever  they  were,  should 
depart  from  Rome  before  sun-set.  11.  This  order  Tullus 
represented  to  his  countrymen  as  an  infraction  of  the  treaty, 
and  procured  an  embassy  to  Rome,  complaining  of  the 
breach,  and  redemanding  all  the  territories  belonging  to  the 
Volsci,  of  which  they  had  been  violently  dispossessed  ;  de- 
claring war  in  case  of  refusal.  This  message,  however,  was 
treated  by  the  senate  with  contempt.  12.  War  being,  in 
consequence,  declared  on  both  sides,  Coriola'nus  and  Tullus 
were  made  generals  of  the  Volsci,  and  accordingly  invaded 
the  Roman  territories,  ravaging  and  laying  waste  all  such 
lands  as  belonged  to  the  plebeians,  but  letting  those  of  tho 
senators  remain  untouched.  13.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
levies  went  on  but  slowly  at  Rome ;  the  two  consuls,  who 
were  re-elected  by  the  people,  seemed  but  little  skilled  in 
war,  and  even  feared  to  encounter  a  general  whom  they 
knew  to  be  their  superior  in  the  field.  The  allies  also 
showed  their  fears,  and  slowly  brought  in  their  succours : 
so  that  Coriola'nus  continued  to  take  their  towns  one  after 
the  other.  14.  Fortune  followed  him  in  every  expedition, 
and  lie  was  now  so  famous  for  his  victories,  that  the  Volsci 
left  their  towns  defenceless  to  follow  him  into  the  field.  The 
very  soldiers  of  his  colleague's  army  came  over  to  him,  and 
would  acknowledge  no  other  general.  15.  Thus  finding 
himself  unopposed  in  the  field,  and  at  the  head  of  a  numer- 
ous army,  he  at  length  invested  the  city  of  Rome  itself, 
fully  resolved  to  besiege  it.  1 6.  It  was  then  the  senate  and 
the  people  unanimously  agreed  to  send  deputies  to  him,  with 
proposals  for  his  restoration,  in  case  he  would  draw  off  his 
army.  17.  Coriola'nus  received  these  proposals  at  the  head 
of  his  principal  officers,  and,  with  the  sternness  of  a  general 
that  was  to  give  the  law,  refused  their  offers. 

18.  Another  embassy  was  now  sent,  conjuring  him  not 
to  exact  from  his  native  city  aught  but  what  became  Romans 
to  grant.  Coriola'nus,  however,  naturally  severe,  still  per- 
sisted in  his  former  demands,  and  granted  them  only  three 
days  for  deliberation.  19.  In  this  exigence,  all  that  was 
eft  to  be  done  was  another  deputation,  still  more  solemn 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  99 


CorioUous  yielding  to  the  entreaties  of  his  Mother. 

than  either  of  the  former,  composed  of  the  pontiffs,  priests, 
and  augurs.  These,  clothed  in  their  habits  of  ceremony, 
and  with  a  grave  and  mournful  deportment,  issued  from  the 
city,  and  entered  the  camp  of  the  conqueror  :  but  ail  in  vain, 
they  found  him  severe  and  inflexible. 

20.  When  the  people  saw  them  return  without  success, 
they  began  to  give  up  the  commonwealth  as  lost.  Their 
temples  were" filled  with  old  men,  with  women  and  chil- 
dren, who,  prostrate  at  the  altars,  put  up  their  ardent 
prayers  for  the  preservation  of  their  country.  Nothing 
was  to  be  heard  but  anguish  and  lamentation ;  nothing  to 
be  seen  but  scenes  of  affright  and  distress.  21.  At  length 
it  was  suggested  to  them,  that  what  could  not  be  effected 
by  the  intercession  of  the  senate,  or  the  adjuration  of  the 
priests,  might  be  brought, -about  by  the  tears  of  a  wife,  or 
the  commands  of  a  mother.  22.  This  deputation  seemed 
to  be  approved  by  all,  and  even  the  senate  themselves  gave 
it  the  sanction  of  their  authority.  Vetu'ria,  the  mother  of 
Coriola'nus,  at  first  hesitated  to  undertake  so  pious  a  work, 
knowing  the  inflexible  temper  of  her  son,  and  fearing  only 
to  show  his  disobedience  in  a  new  point  of  light,  by  his 
rejecting  the  commands  of  a  parent;  however,  she  at  last 
undertook  the  embassy,  and  set  forward  from  the  city,  ac- 
companied by  many  of  the  principal  matrons  of  Rome,  with 
Volum'nia  his  wife,  and  his  two  children.  23.  Coriola'nus, 
who  at  a  distance  discovered  this  mournful  train  of  females, 
was  resolved  to  give  them  a  denial,  and  called  his  officers 
round  him  to  be  witnesses  of  his  resolution  ;  but,  when  told 
that  his  mother  and  his  wife  were  among  the  number,  he  in- 


100  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

stantly  came  down  from  his  tribunal  to  meet  and  embrace 
them.  24.  At  first,  the  women's  tears  and  embraces  took 
away  the  power  of  words,  and  the  rough  soldier  himself, 
hardy  as  he  was,  could  not  refrain  from  sharing  their  dis- 
tress. Coriola'nus  now  seemed  much  agitated  by  contend- 
ing passions ;  while  his  mother,  who  saw  him  moved,  se- 
conded her  words  by  the  most  persuasive  eloquence,  that  of 
tears :  his  wife  and  children  hung  around  him,  entreating 
for  protection  and  pity :  while  the  female  train,  her  com- 
panions, added  their  lamentations,  and  deplored  their  own 
and  their  country's  distress.  25.  Coriola'nus  for  a  moment 
was  silent,  feeling  the  strong  conflict  between  honour  and 
inclination ;  at  length,  as  if  roused  from  a  dream,  he  flew 
to  raise  his  mother,  who  had  fallen  at  his  feet,  crying  out, 
"  O,  my  mother,  thou  hast  saved  Rome,  but  lost  thy  son  !" 
He  accordingly  gave  orders  to  draw  oflf  the  army,  pretend- 
ing to  the  officers  that  the  city  was  too  strong  to  be  taken. 
26.  Tullus,  who  had  long  envied  Coriola'nus,  was  not  re- 
miss in  aggravating  the  lenity  of  his  conduct  to  his  country- 
men. Upon  their  return,  Coriola'nus  is  said  to  have  been 
slain  by  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  and  honourably  bu- 
ried, after  a  late  and  ineffectual  repentance. 

27.  Great  and  many  were  the  public  rejoicings  at  Rome 
upon  the  retreat  of  the  Volscian  army;*  but  they  were 
clouded  soon  after  by  the  intrigues  of  Spu'rius  Cas'sius, 
who,  wanting  to  make  himself  despotic  by  means  of  the 
people,  was  found  guilty  of  a  number  of  crimes,  all  tending 
towards  altering  the  constitution  ;  and  was  thrown  headlong 
from  the  Tarpei'an  rock,t  by  those  very  people  whose  in- 
terests he  had  endeavoured  to  extend. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  were  the  consequences  of  the  late  separation  ? 

2.  What  measures  were  taken  to  remedy  these  misfortunes,  and  to 

whom  was  the  blame  of  them  attributed  1 

3.  What  happened  to  remove  the  popular  discontent  ? 

4.  What  circumstances  raised  a  fresh  commotion  ? 

*  The  senate  commanded  a  temple  to  be  erected  on  the  spot  where  the 
interview  between  Coriola'nus  and  his  mother  took  place,  which  saved 
Rome,  and  dedicated  it  to  maternal  influence  ? 

•j-  Tarpe'ian  Rock,  or  Tarpei'us  Mons,  a  hill  at  Rome,  about  eighty 
feet  in  perpendicular  height,  whence  the  Romans  threw  down  their  con 
demned  criminals 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  101 

6  Did  Coriolanus  obey  the  summons  ? 

6.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  trial  7 

7.  To  what  sensations  did  this  sentence  give  rise  ? 

8.  What  circumstance  attended  his  departure  1 

9.  In  what  manner  did  he  commence  his  revenge  1 

1 0.  Was  this  information  believed  7 

1 1.  What  use  did  Tullus  make  of  this  order  1 

12.  To  whom  was  the  conduct  of  the  war  committed  ? 

13.  Was  this  invasion  vigorously  opposed  7 

14.  Was  Coriolanus  uniformly  successful  ? 

15.  What  did  this  good  fortune  induce  him  to  undertake  7 

1 6.  What  measures  did  the  senate  adopt  on  this  emergency  ? 

17.  How  were  these  proposals  received? 

18.  Were  they  repeated  ] 

19.  What  was  the  next  step  adopted  ? 

20.  Did  the  Romans  boldly  resolve  to  oppose  force  by  force  ? 
2f.  What  new  expedient  was  proposed  1 

22.  Was  this  proposal  adopted  7 

23.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Coriola'nus  on  the  occasion? 

24.  Describe  this  interview. 

25.  What  was  the  result  7 

26.  Did  the  Volscians  approve  of  this  measure? 

27.  What  followed  this  happy  deliverance  ? 


SECTION  II. 

1.  THE  year  following,  the  two  consuls  of  the  formei 
year,  Man'lius  and  Fa'bius,  were  cited  by  the  tribunes  to 
appear  before  the  people.     The  Agra'rian  law,  which  had 
been  proposed  some  time  before,  for  equally  dividing  the 
lands  of  the  commonwealth  among  the  people,  was  the  ob- 
ject invariably  pursued,  and  they  were  accused  of  having 
made  unjustifiable  delays  in  putting  it  off. 

2.  The  Agra'rian  law  was  a  grant  the  senate  could   not 
think  of  making  to  the  people.     The  consuls,  therefore, 
made  many  delays  and  excuses,  till  at  length  they  were 
once  more  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  a  dictator ;  and  they 
fixed  upon  Quintus  Cincinna'tus,  a  man  who  had  for  some 
time,  given  up  all  views  of  ambition,  and  retired  to  his  little 
f;irm,  where  the  deputies  of  the  senate  found  him  holding 
the  plough,  and  dressed  in  the  mean  attire  of  a  labouring 
Ims1>:indm:m.     3.  He  appeared  but  little  elevated  with  the 
addresses  of  ceremony,  and  the  pompous  habits  they  brought 
him  ;  and,  upon  declaring  to  him  the  senate's  pleasure,  he 
testified  rather  a  concern  that  his  aid  should  be  wanted.    He 
naturally  preferred  the  charms  of  a  country  retirement  to  the 

12 


102  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

fatiguing  splendors  of  office,  and  only  said  lo  his  wife,  as 
they  were  leading  him  away,  "  I  fear,  my  Atti'lia,  that  for 
this  year  our  little  fields  must  remain  unsown."  4.  Then, 
taking  a  tender  leave,  he  departed  for  the  city,  where  both 
parties  were  strongly  inflamed  against  each  other.  How- 
ever, he  resolved  to  side  with  neither ;  but,  by  a  strict  at- 
tention to  the  interests  of  his  country,  instead  of  gaining  the 
confidence  of  faction,  to  seize  the  esteem  of  all.  5.  Thus, 
by  threats  and  well-timed  submission,  he  prevailed  upon  the 
tribunes  to  put  off  their  law  for  a  time,  and  conducted  him- 
self so  as  to  be  a  terror  to  the  multitude  whenever  they  re- 
fused to  enlist,  and  their  greatest  encourager  whenever  their 
submission  deserved  it.  6.  Having,  by  these  means,  re- 
stored that  tranquillity  to  the  people  which  he  so  much  loved 
himself,  he  again  gave  up  the  splendors  of  ambition,  to  en- 
joy it  with  a  greater  relish  on  his  little  farm. 

7.  Cincinna'tus  had  not  long  retired  from  his  office,  when 
v.  c.  ~>  a  fresh  exigence  of  the  state  once  more  required  his 
295.  5  assistance  ;  and  the  JE'qui  and  the  Vol'sci,  who,  al- 
though always  worsted,  were  still  for  renewing  the  war, 
made  new  inroads  into  the  territories  of  Rome.  8.  Minu'- 
tius,  one  of  the  consuls  who  succeeded  Cincinna'tus,  was 
sent  to  oppose  them ;  but  being  naturally  timid,  and  rather 
more  afraid  of  being  conquered  than  desirous  of  victory,  his 
army  was  driven  into  a  defile  between  two  mountains,  from 
which,  except  through  the  enemy,  there  was  no  egress. 
9.  This,  however,  the  jE'qui  had  the  precaution  to  fortify, 
by  which  the  Roman  army  was  so  hemmed  in  on  every 
side,  that  nothing  remained  but  submission  to  the  enemy, 
famine,  or  immediate  death.  10.  Some  knights  who  found 
means  of  getting  away  privately  through  the  enemy's  camp, 
were  the  first  that  brought  the  account  of  this  disaster  to 
Rome.  11.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation  of  all 
miiks  of  people  when  informed  of  it :  the  senate  at  first 
thought  of  the  other  consul ;  but  not  having  sufficient  ex- 
perience of  his  abilities,  they  unanimously  turned  their  eyes 
upon  Cincinna'tus,  and  resolved  to  make  him  dictator.  12. 
CiiK'inna'tus,  the  only  person  on  whom  Rome  could  now 
place  her  whole  dependence,  was  found,  as  before,  by  the 
messengers  of  the  senate,  labouring  in  his  field  with  cheer- 
ful industry.  13.  He  was  at  first  astonished  at  the  ensigns 
of  unbounded  power,  with  which  the  deputies  came  to  in- 
vest him  ;  but  ?till  more  at  the  approach  of  the  principal  of 
the  senate,  who  came  out  to  attend  him.  14.  A  dignity  so 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  103 


unlocked  for,  however,  had  no  effect  upon  the  simplicity  or 
integrity  of  his  manners ;  and  being  now  possessed  of  ab- 
solute power,  and  called  upon  to  nominate  his  master  of  the 
horse,  he  chose  a  poor  man  named  Tarqui'tius,  one  who, 
like  himself,  despised  riches  when  they  led  to  dishonour. 
Thus  the  saving  a  great  nation  was  devolved  upon  a  hus- 
bandman taken  from  the  plough,  and  an  obscure  sentinel 
found  among  the  dregs  of  the  army.  15.  Upon  entering 
the  city,  the  dictator  put  on  a  serene  look,  and  entreated  all 
those  who  were  able  to  bear  arms,  to  repair,  before  sunset, 
to  the  Cam'pus  Mar'tius  (the  place  where  the  levies  were 
made)  with  necessary  arms,  and  provisions  for  five  days. 
16.  He  put  himself  at  the  head  of  these,  and,  marching  all 
night  with  great  expedition,  arrived  early  the  next  day  with- 
in sight  of  the  enemy.  Upon  his  approach,  he  ordered  his 
soldiers  to  raise  a  loud  shout,  to  apprise  the  consul's  army 
of  the  relief  that  was  at  hand.  17.  The  JE'qui  were  not  a 
little  amazed  when  they  saw  themselves  between  two  ene- 
mies ;  but  still  more  when  they  perceived  Cincinna'tus 
making  the  strongest  entrenchments  beyond  them,  to  pre- 
vent their  escape,  and  enclosing  them  as  they  had  enclosed 
the  consul.  18.  To  prevent  this,  a  furious  combat  ensued  ; 
but  the  jE'qui,  being  attacked  on  both  sides,  and  unable 
longer  to  resist  or  fly,  begged  a  cessation  of  arms.  19.  They 
oflered  the  dictator  his  own  terms :  he  gave  them  their  lives, 
and  obliged  them,  in  token  of  servitude,  to  pass  under  tho 
yoke,  which  was  two  spears  set  upright,  and  another  arn»s, 
in  the  form  of  a  gallows,  beneath  which  the  vanquished 
were  to  march.  Their  captains  and  generals  he  made  pri- 


104  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

soners  of  war,  being  reserved  to  adorn  his  triumph.  20.  As 
for  the  plunder  of  the  enemy's  camp,  that  he  gave  entirely 
up  to  his  own  soldiers,  without  reserving  any  part  for  him- 
self, or  permitting  those  of  the  delivered  army  to  have  a 
share.  21.  Thus  having  rescued  a  Roman  army  from  in- 
evitable destruction,  having  defeated  a  powerful  enemy, 
having  taken  and  fortified  their  city,  and  still  more,  having 
refused  any  part  of  the  spoil,  he  resigned  his  dictatorship, 
after  having  enjoyed  it  but  fourteen  days.  The  senate 
would  have  enriched  him,  but  he  declined  their  proffers, 
choosing  to  retire  once  more  to  his  farm  and  his  cottage, 
content  with  competence  and  fame. 

22.  But  this  repose  from  foreign  invasion  did  not  lessen 
the  tumults  of  the  city  within.  The  clamours  for  the  Agra'- 
rian  laAV  still  continued,  and  still  more  fiercely,  when  Sic'- 
cius  Denta'tus,  a  plebe'ian  advanced  in  years,  but  of  an  ad- 
mirable person  and  military  deportment,  came  forward  to 
enumerate  his  hardships  and  his  merits.  This  old  soldier 
made  no  scruple  of  extolling  the  various  achievements  of  his 
youth ;  indeed,  his  merits  more  than  supported  his  ostenta- 
tion. 23.  He  had  served  his  country  in  the  wars  forty 
years :  he  had  been  an  officer  thirty,  first  a  centurion,  and 
then  a  tribune  ;  he  had  fought  one  hundred  and  twenty  bat- 
tles, in  which,  by  the  force  of  his  single  arm,  he  had  saved 
a  multitude  of  lives  ;  he  had  gained  fourteen  civic,*  three 
mural,t  and  eight  golden  crowns  ;  besides  eighty-three 
chains,  sixty  bracelets,  eighteen  gilt  spears,  and  twenty- 
three  horse-trappings,  whereof  nine  were  for  killing  the  ene- 
my in  single  combat ;  moreover,  he  had  received  forty-five 
wounds  in  front,  and  none  behind.  24.  These  were  his 
honours ;  yet,  notwithstanding  all  these,  he  had  never  re- 
ceived any  share  of  those  lands  which  were  won  from  the 
enemy,  but  continued  to  drag  on  a  life  of  poverty  and  con- 
tempt, while  others  were  possessed  of  those  very  territories 
which  his  valour  had  won,  without  any  merit  to  deserve 
them,  or  ever  having  contributed  to  the  conquest.^  25.  A 

*  A  civic  crown  among  the  Romans,  was  made  of  oaken  leaves,  and 
given  to  those  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen. 

•f  A  mural  crown  was  an  honorary  reward,  given  by  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans to  the  soldiers  who  first  scaled  the  walls  of  an  enemy's  city. 

+  "  These  military  toys,"  said  he,  "  are  the  only  rewards  I  have 
hitherto  received.  No  lands,  no  share  of  the  conquered  countries 
Usurpers,  without  any  title  but  that  of  a  patrician  extraction,  possess 
tnem.  Is  this  to  be  endured  1  Shall  they  alone  possess  the  fruits  of  oui 
conquests  !  The  purchase  of  our  blood !" 


THE   COMMONWEALTH.  105 

case  of  so  much  hardship  had  a  strong  effect  upon  the  mul- 
titude ;  they  unanimously  demanded  that  the  law  might  be 
passed,  and  that  such  merit  should  not  go  unrewarded.  It 
was  in  vain  that  some  of  the  senators  rose  up  to  speak 
against  it,  their  voices  were  drowned  by  the  cries  of  the 
people.  26.  When  reason,  therefore,  could  no  longer  be 
heard,  passion,  as  usual,  succeeded ;  and  the  young  patri* 
cians,  running  furiously  into  the  throng,  broke  the  balloting 
urns,  and  dispersed  the  multitude  that  offered  to  oppose 
them.  27.  For  this  they  were,  some  time  after,  fined  by 
the  tribunes  ;  their  resolution,  however,  for  the  present,  put 
off  the  Agra'rian  law. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  On  what  accusation  were  Manlius  and  Fabius  cited  to  appear  before 

the  people  1 

2.  What  measure  did  the  consuls  adopt  1 

Where,  and  in  what  employment  was  Cincinnatus  found  7 

3.  What  effect  had  this  dignity  on  Cincinnatus  7 

4.  How  did  he  conduct  himself  7 

5.  Were  his  measures  successful 7 

6.  Did  Cincinnatus  continue  in  office! 

7.  Was  he  permitted  to  continue  in  retirement  7 

8.  What  was  the  exigence  that  required  his  return  to  office  7 

9.  What  prevented  the  Romans  from  forcing  their  way  through  ? 

10.  How  was  this  news  received  at  Rome! 

11.  Whom  did  they  resolve  to  appoint  dictator? 

12.  How  was  Cincinnatus  now  employed  when  the  messengers  arrived? 

13.  What  was  his  behaviour  on  the  occasion  7 

14.  How  was  he  affected  by  this  exaltation  1 

15.  What  were  his  first  measures  1 

16.  What  followed ! 

1 7.  How  were  the  enemy  affected  by  his  approach  7 

1 8.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

1 9.  What  were  the  terms  of  peace  7 

20.  What  became  of  the  plunder  7 

21.  What  were  his  rewards  for  this  important  service 

22.  Was  domestic  tranquillity  the  consequence  of  foreign  conquest ! 

23.  What  were  these  achievements  1 

24.  How  was  he  rewarded  ? 

25.  What  was  the  consequence  of  his  appeal  to  the  people  7 

26.  Did  the  people  obtain  their  demand  1 

27.  How  was  this  outrage  punished  7 


106  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

CHAPTER  XII. 
SECTION  I. 


FROM    THE    CREATION    OF    THE    DECEMVIRI,    TO    THE 
EXTINCTION    OF    THAT    OFFICE. U.   C.  302. 

1.  THE  commonwealth  of  Rome  had  now,  for  nearly 
sixty  years,  been  fluctuating  between  the  contending  orders 
that  composed  it,  till  at  length  each  side,  as  if  weary,  was 
willing  to  respire  awhile  from  the  mutual  exertions  of  its 
claims.  The  citizens,  of  every  rank,  began  to  complain  of 
the  arbitrary  decisions  of  their  magistrates,  and  wished  to  be 
guided  by  a  written  body  of  laws,  which,  being  known, 
might  prevent  wrongs,  as  well  as  punish  them.  2.  In  this 
both  the  senate  and  the  people  concurred,  as  hoping  that 
such  laws  would  put  an  end  to  the  commotions  that  so  long 
had  harassed  the  state.  3.  It  was  thereupon  agreed  that 
ambassadors  should  be  sent  to  the  Greek  cities  in  Italy,  and 
to  Athens,  to  bring  home  such  laws  from  thence,  as,  by 
experience,  had  been  found  most  equitable  and  useful.  For 
this  purpose  three  senators,  Posthu'mus,  Sulpi'cius,  and 
Man'lius,  were  fixed  upon,  and  galleys  assigned  to  convoy 
them,  agreeably  to  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  people.  4. 
While  they  were  upon  this  commission  abroad,  a  dreadful 
plague  depopulated  the  city  at  home,  and  supplied  the  inter- 
val of  their  absence  with  other  anxiety  than  that  of  wishes 
for  their  return.  5.  In  about  a  year  the  plague  ceased,  and 
the  ambassadors  returned,  bringing  liome  a  body  of  laws, 
collected  from  the  most  civilised  states  of  Greece  and  Italy, 
which,  being  afterwards  formed  into  ten  tables,  and  two 
more  being  added,  made  that  celebrated  code,  called,  The 
Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.* 

6.  The  ambassadors  were  no  sooner  returned,  than  the 
tribunes  required  that  a  body  of  men  should  be  chosen  to 
digest  their  new  laws  into  proper  form,  and  to  give  weight 
to  the  execution  of  them.  7.  After  long  debate,  whether 
this  choice  should  not  be  made  from  the  people,  as  well  as 
the  patricians,  it  was  at  last  agreed  that  ten  of  the  principal 

These  laws  were  engraven  on  brass,  and  hung  up  in  the  most  con- 
inns  narf.  of  the  Forum. 


spicuous  part  of  the  Forum. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH  107 

senators  should  be  elected,  whose  power,  continuing  for  a 
year,  should  be  equal  to  thrvt  of  kings  and  consuls,  and  that 
without  any  appeal.  8.  Thus  the  whole  constitution  of  the 
state  at  once  took  a  new  form,  and  a  dreadful  experiment 
was  about  to  be  tried,  of  governing  one  nation  by  laws 
formed  from  the  manners  and  customs  of  another. 

9.  These  Decemviri,  being  now  invested  with  absolute 
power,  agreed  to  take  the  reins  of  government  by  turns, 
each  to  administer  justice  for  a  day.  10.  For  the  first  year, 
they  wrought  with  extreme  application :  and  their  work 
being  finished,  it  was  expected  that  they  would  be  content 
to  give  up  their  office ;  but,  having  known  the  charms  of 
power,  they  were  unwilling  to  resign  :  they  pretended  that 
some  laws  were  yet  wanting  to  complete  their  design,  and 
entreated  the  senate  for  a  continuance  in  office ;  which  request 
was  readily  granted. 

11.  But  they  soon  threw  off  the  mask  of  moderation, 
and,  regardless  of  the  approbation  of  the  senate  or  the  peo- 
ple, resolved  to  continue,  against  all  order,  in  the  decemvi- 
rate.  12.  A  conduct  so  tyrannical  produced  discontents, 
and  these  were  as  sure  to  produce  fresh  acts  of  tyranny. 
The  city  was  become  almost  a  desert,  with  respect  to  all 
who  had  any  thing  to  lose,  and  the  rapacity  of  the  decem- 
virs was  then  only  discontinued  when  they  wanted  fresh 
subjects  to  exercise  it  upon.  13.  In  this  stale  of  slavery, 
proscription,  and  mutual  distrust,  not  one  citizen  was  found  to 
strike  for  his  country's  freedom ;  these  tyrants  continued  to 
rule  without  controul,  being  constantly  guarded,  not  by  the 
lie-tors  alone,  but  by  a  numerous  crowd  of  dependents, 
clients,  and  even  patricians,  whom  their  vices  had  confede- 
rated round  them. 

14.  In  this  gloomy  situation  of  the  state,  the  ^E'qui  and 
Vol'sci,  those  constant  enemies  of  the  Romans,  renewed 
their  incursions,  and,  resolving  to  profit  by  the  intestine 
divisions  of  the  people,  advanced  within  about  ten  miles 
ot  Rome. 

15.  The  decemviri,  being  in  possession  of  all  the  military 
as  well  as  of  the  civil  power,  divided  their  army  into  three 
parts ;  whereof  one  continued  with  Ap'pius  in  the  city,  to 
keep  it  in  awe ;  the  other  two  were  commanded  by  his  col- 
leagues, and  were  led,  one  against  the  ^E'qui,  and  the  other 
against  the  Vol'sci.     16.   The   Roman   soldiers   had  now 
adopted  a  method  of  punishing  the  generals  whom  they 
disliked,  by  suffering  themselves  to  be  vanquished  in  tho 


108  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

field.  They  put  it  in  practice  upon  this  occasion,  and  shame- 
fully abandoned  their  camp  upon  the  approach  of  the  enemy, 
17.  Never  was  victorious  news  more  joyfully  received  a 
Rome,  than  the  tidings  of  this  defeat ;  the  generals,  as  is 
always  the  case,  were  blamed  for  the  treachery  of  their 
men ;  some  demanded  that  they  should  be  deposed,  others 
cried  out  for  a  dictator  to  lead  the  troops  to  conquest.  18. 
Among  the  rest,  old  Sic'cius  Denta'tus,  the  tribune,  spoke 
his  sentiments  with  his  usual  openness ;  and,  treating  the 
generals  with  contempt,  pointed  out  the  faults  of  their  dis- 
cipline in  the  camp,  and  their  conduct  in  the  field.  19.  Ap'- 
pius,  in  the  mean  time,  was  not  remiss  in  observing  the 
dispositions  of  the  people.  Denta'tus,  in  particular,  was 
marked  out  for  vengeance  ;  and,  under  pretence  of  doing 
him  particular  honour,  he  was  appointed  legate,  and  put  at 
the  head  of  the  supplies  which  were  sent  from  Rome,  to 
reinforce  the  army.  20.  The  office  of  legate  was  held 
sacred  among  the  Romans,  as  in  it  was  united  the  authority 
of  a  general,  with  the  reverence  due  to  the  priesthood. 
21.  Denta'tus,  no  way  suspecting  the  design,  went  to  the 
camp  with  alacrity,  where  he  was  received  with  all  the  ex- 
ternal marks  of  respect.  But  the  generals  soon  found 
means  of  indulging  their  desire  of  revenge.  22.  He  was 
appointed  at  the  head  of  a  hundred  men  to  go  and  examine 
a  more  commodious  place  for  encampment,  as  he  had  very 
candidly  assured  the  commanders,  that  their  present  situa- 
tion was  wrong.  23.  The  soldiers,  however,  who  were 
given  as  his  attendants,  were  assassins  ;  wretches  who  had 
long  been  ministers  of  the  vengeance  of  the  decemviri,  and 
who  had  now  engaged  to  murder  him,  though  with  all  those 
apprehensions  which  his  reputation  (for  he  was  called  the 
Roman  Jichilles)  might  be  supposed  to  inspire.  24.  With 
these  designs  they  led  him  into  the  hollow  bosom  of  a  re- 
tired mountain,  where  they  began  to  set  upon  him  behind. 
25.  Denta'tus  too  late  perceived  the  treachery  of  the  decem- 
viri, and  was  resolved  to  sell  his  life  as  dearly  as  he  could ; 
he  therefore  set  his  back  against  a  rock,  and  defended  him- , 
self  against  those  who  pressed  most  closely.  Though  now 
grown  old,  he  had  still  the  remains  of  his  former  valour, 
and,  with  his  own  hand,  killed  no  less  than  fifteen  of  the 
assailants,  and  wounded  thirty.  26.  The  assassins  now, 
therefore,  terrified  at  his  amazing  bravery,  showered  their 
javelins  upon  him  at  a  distance,  all  which  he  received  in 
his  shield  with  undaunted  resolution.  27.  The  combat, 


THE    COMMONWEALTH. 


109 


Death  of  DenUto*. 

though  so  unequal  in  numbers,  was  managed  for  some  time 
with  doubtful  success,  till  at  length  the  assailants  bethought 
themselves  of  ascending  the  rock,  against  which  he  stood, 
and  pouring  down  stones  upon  him  from  above.  28.  This 
succeeded  :  the  old  soldier  fell  beneath  their  united  efforts  ; 
after  having  shown,  by  his  death,  that  he  owed  to  his  forti- 
tude, and  not  his  fortune,  that  he  had  come  off  so  many 
times  victorious.  29.  The  decemviri  pretended  to  join  in 
the  general  sorrow  for  so  brave  a  man,  and  decreed  him  a 
funeral  with  the  first  military  honours  ;  but  their  pretended 
grief,  compared  with  their  known  hatred,  only  rendered 
them  still  more  detestable  to  the  people. 


Questions  for  Examination, 


1  Of  what  did  the  Roman  citizens  complain,  and  what  did  they  wish  1 

2  Was  this  assented  to  by  the  nation  at  large  1 

3.  What  means  were  adopted  for  this  purpose  ? 

4.  What  happened  during  their  absence  1 

5.  How  long  did  this  calamity  last? 

6.  What  steps  were  taken  on  the  return  of  the  ambassadors  T 

7.  Who  were  chosen  for  this  purpose  ? 

8    Was  this  proceeding  an  important  one? 
9.   In  what  manner  did  the  decemviri  govern  ? 
0.    How  did  they  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office? 
11.    Did  they  continue  in  the  conscientious  discharge  of  their  duties'' 
12    What  was  the  consequence  of  this  conduct? 
13.    Was  no  patriot  to  be  found  bold  enough  to  be  a  champion  in  hi* 

country's  cause? 

14     What  added  lo  the  miseries  of  the  Romans? 

K 


110  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

15.  What  steps  were  taken  to  oppose  them? 

16.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Roman  soldiers  on  this  occasion? 

17.  How  was  this  news  received  at  Rome] 

18.  Who  appeared  most  conspicuous  on  this  occasion? 

19.  How  was  this  honest  sincerity  received? 

20.  Was  the  office  of  legate  a  respectable  one  ? 

21.  Did  Dentatus  suspect  treachery? 

22.  What  plan  of  revenge  was  adopted? 

23.  What  was  the  character  of  his  attendants  ? 

24.  How  did  they  commence  their  base  design  ? 

25.  Was  Dentatus  aware  of  their  treachery,  and  what  resistance  did  he 

make? 

26.  Did  the  assassins  boldly  engage  the  hero? 

27.  What  new  method  of  attack  did  they  attempt  ? 

28.  Was  this  plan  successful  ? 

29.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  decemviri  on  this  occasion  ? 


SECTION  II. 

1 .  BUT  a  transaction  still  more  atrocious  than  the  former, 
served  to  inspire  the  citizens  with  a  resolution  to  break  all 
measures  of  obedience,  so  as  at  last  to  restore  freedom. 

2.  Ap'pius,  sitting  one  day  on  his  tribunal  to  dispense 
justice,  saw  a  maiden  of  exquisite  beauty,  aged  about  fif- 
teen, passing  to  one  of  the  public  schools,  attended  by  a 
matron,  her  nurse.     The  charms  of  the  damsel,  heightened 
by  all  the  innocence  of  virgin  modesty,  caught  his  attention, 
and  fired  his  heart.     The  day  following,  as  she  passed,  he 
found  her  still  more  beautiful,  and  his  breast  still  more  in- 
flamed.   3.  He  now,  therefore,  resolved  to  obtain  the  grati- 
fication of  his  passion,  whatever  should  be  the  consequence, 
and  found  means  to  inform  himself  of  the  maiden's  name 
and  family.     4.    Her  name   was  Virgin'ia ;    she  was   the 
daughter  of  Virgin'ius,  a  centurion,  then  with  the  army  in 
the  field,  and  had  been  contracted  to   IciPius,  formerly  a 
tribun^of  the  people,  who  had  agreed  to  marry  her  at  the 
end  of  the  present  campaign. 

5.  Ap'pius  at  first  resolved  to  break  off  this  match,  and 
to  espouse  her  himself;  but  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables 
had  forbidden  the  patricians  to  intermarry  with  the  plebeians, 
and  he  could  not  infringe  these,  as  he  was  the  enactor  of 
them.  6.  He  determined,  therefore,  to  make  her  his  slave. 
7.  After  having  vainly  tried  to  corrupt  the  fidelity  of  her 
nurse,  he  had  recourse  to  another  expedient,  still  more 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  1 1  1 

wicked.  He  fixed  upon  one  Clau'dius,  who  had  long  been 
the  minister  of  his  crimes,  to  assert  that  the  beautiful  maid 
was  his  slave,  and  to  refer  the  cause  to  Ap'pius's  tribunal 
for  decision.  8.  Clau'dius  behaved  exactly  according  to  his 
instructions ;  for,  taking  with  him  a  band  of  ruffians  like 
himself,  he  entered  into  the  public  school,  where  Virginia 
was  found  among  her  female  companions,  and  seizing  upon 
her  under  pretence  that  she  was  the  daughter  of  one  of  his 
slaves,  was  dragging  her  away,  when  he  was  prevented  by 
the  people,  drawn  together  by  her  cries.  9.  At  length,  af- 
ter the  first  heat  of  opposition  was  over,  he  led  the  weeping 
virgin  to  the  tribunal  of  Ap'pius,  and  there  plausibly  exposed 
his  pretensions.  10.  Clau'dius  asserted  that  she  was  born 
in  his  house,  of  a  female  slave,  who  sold  her  to  the  wife  of 
Virgin'ius,  who  had  been  childless.  That  he  had  credible 
evidences  to  prove  the  truth  of  what  he  had  advanced ;  but 
that,  until  they  could  come  together,  it  was  but  reasonable 
the  slave  should  be  delivered  into  his  custody,  he  being  her 
proper  master.  11.  Ap'pius  pretended  to  be  struck  with 
the  justice  of  his  claim ;  he  observed,  that  if  the  reputed 
father  himself  were  present,  he  might  indeed  be  willing  to 
delay  the  delivery  of  the  maid ;  but  that  it  was  not  lawful 
for  him,  in  the  present  case,  to  detain  her  from  her  master. 
He,  therefore,  adjudged  her  to  Clau'dius,  as  his  slave,  to  be 
kept  by  him  till  Virgin'ius  should  arrive,  and  be  able  to 
prove  his  paternity.  12.  This  sentence  was  received  with 
loud  clamours  and  reproaches  by  the  multitude,  particularly 
by  the  women,  who  came  round  the  innocent  Virgin'ia,  de- 
sirous to  protect  her  from  the  judge's  fury ;  while  Icil'ius, 
her  lover,  boldly  opposed  the  decree,  and  obliged  Clau'dius 
to  take  refuge  under  the  tribunal  of  the  decemvir.  13.  All 
things  now  threatened  an  open  insurrection,  when  Ap'pius, 
fearing  the  event,  thought  proper  to  suspend  his  judgment, 
under  pretence  of  waiting  the  arrival  of  Virgin'ius,  who  was 
then  about  eleven  miles  from  Rome,  with  the  army.  14. 
The  day  following  was  fixed  for  the  trial.  In  the  mean 
time  Ap'pius  privately  sent  letters  to  the  general  to  confine 
Virgin'ius,  as  his  arrival  in  town  might  only  serve  to  kindle 
sedition  among  the  people.  15.  These  letters,  however, 
being  intercepted  by  the  centurion's  friends,  they  sent  him 
a  full  relation  of  the  design  laid  against  his  liberty  and  the 
honour  of  his  only  daughter.  16.  Virgin'ius,  upon  this, 
pretending  the  death  of  a  near  relation,  got  permission  to 
leave  the  camp,  and  hastened  to  Rome,  inspired  with  in- 


112  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

dignation  and  revenge.  17.  Accordingly,  the  next  day,  to 
the  astonishment  of  Ap'pius,  he  appeared  before  the  tribu- 
nal, leading  his  weeping  daughter  by  the  hand,  both  of  them 
habited  in  deep  mourning.  18.  Clau'dius,  the  accuser,  be- 
gan by  making  his  demand.  Virgin'ius  next  spoke  in  turn : 
he  represented,  that,  if  he  had  had  intentions  of  adopting  a 
suppositions  child,  he  should  have  fixed  upon  a  boy  rather 
than  a  girl ;  that  it  was  notorious  to  all,  that  his  wife  had 
herself  nursed  this  daughter ;  and  that  it  was  surprising 
such  a  claim  should  be  made  after  a  fifteen  years'  silence  ; 
and  not  till  Virginia  was  become  marriageable,  and  acknow- 
ledged to  be  exquisitely  beautiful.  19.  While  the  father 
spoke  this,  with  a  stern  air,  the  eyes  of  all  were  turned  on 
Virgin'ia,  who  stood  trembling,  with  looks  of  persuasive 
eloquence  and  excessive  grief,  which  added  weight  to  his 
remonstrances,  and  excited  compassion.  20.  The  people, 
satisfied  of  the  cruelty  of  his  case,  raised  an  outcry,  ex- 
pressive of  their  indignation.  21.  Ap'pius,  fearing  that 
what  had  been  said  might  have  a  dangerous  effect  upon  the 
multitude,  and  under  a  pretence  of  being  sufficiently  in- 
structed in  the  merits  of  the  cause,  with  rage  interrupted 
him.  "  Yes,"  said  he,  "  my  conscience  obliges  me  to  de- 
clare, that  I,  myself,  am  a  witness  to  the  truth  of  the  depo- 
sition of  Clau'dius.  Most  of  this  assembly  know  that  I 
was  left  guardian  to  him.  I  was  early  apprised  that  he  had 
a  right  to  this  young  slave ;  but  public  affairs,  and  the  dis- 
sensions of  the  people,  have  prevented  my  doing  him  justice. 
However,  it  is  not  now  too  late ;  and  by  the  power  vested 
in  me  for  the  general  good,  I  adjudge  Virgin'ia  to  be  the 
property  of  Clau'dius,  the  plaintiff.  Go,  therefore,  lictors, 
disperse  the  multitude,  and  make  room  for  the  master  to 
repossess  himself  of  his  slave."  22.  The  lictors,  in  obe- 
dience to  his  command,  drove  off  the  throng  that  pressed 
round  the  tribunal ;  they  seized  upon  Virgin'ia,  and  were 
delivering  her  up  into  the  hands  of  Clau'dius :  the  multi- 
tude were  terrified  and  withdrew ;  and  Virgin'ius,  who  found 
that  all  was  over,  seemed  to  acquiesce  in  the  sentence.  23. 
He,  however,  mildly  entreated  of  Ap'pius  to  be  permitted 
to  take  a  last  farewell  of  a  child  whom  he  had  at  least  con- 
sidered as  his  own,  and  so  satisfied,  he  would  return  to  his 
duty  with  fresh  alacrity.  24.  Ap'pius  granted  the  favour, 
upon  condition  that  their  endearments  should  pass  in  his 
presence.  But  Virgin'ius  was  then  meditating  a  dreadful  re- 
solution. 15.  The  crowd  made  way,  and  Virgin'ius,  with  the 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  113 


Death  of  Virginia. 

most  poignant  anguish,  taking  his  almost  expiring  daughter 
in  his  arms,  for  a  while  supported  her  head  upon  his  breast, 
and  wiped  away  the  tears  that  trickled  down  her  cheeks. 
26.  He  most  tenderly  embraced  her,  and  drawing  her  in- 
sensibly to  some  shops  which  were  on  the  side  of  the  forum, 
snatched  up  a  butcher's  knife:  "My  dearest  lost  child," 
cried  Virgin'ius,  "  thus,  thus  alone  is  it  in  my  power  to 
preserve  your  honour  and  your  freedom  !"  So  saying,  he 
plunged  the  weapon  into  her  heart.  Then  drawing  it  out, 
reeking  with  her  blood,  he  held  it  up  to  Ap'pius :  "  Tyrant," 
cried  he,  "  by  this  blood  I  devote  thy  head  to  the  infernal 
gods  !"  27.  Thus  saying,  and  covered  with  his  daughter's 
blood,  the  knife  remaining  in  his  hand,  threatening  destruc- 
tion to  whomsoever  should  oppose  him,  he  ran  through  the 
city,  wildly  calling  upon  the  people  to  strike  for  freedom. 
By  the  favour  of  the  multitude  he  then  mounted  his  horse, 
and  rode  directly  to  the  camp. 

28.  He  no  sooner  arrived,  followed  by  a  number  of  his 
friends,  than  he  informed  the  army  of  all  that  had  been  done, 
still  holding  the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  He  asked  their 
pardon  and  the  pardon  of  the  gods,  for  having  committed  so 
rash  an  action,  but  ascribed  it  to  the  dreadful  necessity  of 
the  times.  29.  The  army,  already  predisposed  to  revolt  by 
the  murder  of  Dcnta'tus,  and  other  acts  of  tyranny  and  op- 
pression, immediately  with  shouts  echoed  their  approbation, 
and  decamping,  left  the  generals  behind,  to  take  their  station 
once  more  upon  mount  Aven'tine,  whither  they  had  retired 

K2 


114  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

about  forty  years  before.  The  oilier  army,  which  had  been 
to  oppose  the  Sab'ines,  felt  a  like  resentment,  and  came  over 
in  large  parties  to  join  them. 

30.  Ap'pius,  in  the  mean  time,  did  all  he  could  to  quell 
the  disturbances  in  the  city;  but  finding  the  tumult  incapa- 
ble of  controul,  and  perceiving  that  his  mortal  enemies, 
Vale'rius  and  Hora'tius,  were  the  most  active  in  opposition, 
at  first  attempted  to  find  safety  by  flight ;  nevertheless, 
being  encouraged  by  Op'pius,  who  was  one  of  his  colleagues, 
he  ventured  to  assemble  the  senate,  and  urged  the  punish- 
ment of  all  deserters.  31.  The  senate,  however,  was  far 
from  giving  him  the  relief  he  sought  for ;  they  foresaw  the 
dangers  and  miseries  that  threatened  the  state,  in  case  of 
opposing  the  incensed  army ;  they  therefore  despatched 
messengers  to  them,  offering  to  restore  their  former  mode 
of  government.  32.  To  this  proposal  all  the  people  joyfully 
assented,  and  the  army  gladly  obeying,  now  returned  to  the 
city,  if  not  with  the  ensigns,  at  least  with  the  pleasure  of  a 
triumphant  entry.  33.  Ap'pius  and  Op'pius  both  died  by 
their  own  hands  in  prison.  The  other  eight  decemvirs  went 
into  exile ;  and  Clau'dius,  the  pretended  master  of  Virgin'ia, 
was  ignominiously  banished. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  Did  the  Romans  tamely  submit  to  the  tyranny  of  the  decemviri  ? 

2.  Relate  the  particulars  of  this  transaction 

3.  What  resolution  did  Appius  form  1 

4.  Who  was  this  maiden  1 

5.  What  was  Appius's  first  determination  1 

6.  On  what  did  he  next  resolve  7 

7.  To  what  means  did  he  have  recourse  for  the  accomplishment  of  hit 

purpose  1 

8.  Did  Claudius  undertake  this  base  commission  1 

9.  Was  the  opposition  of  the  people  ultimately  successful  7 

10.  How  did  Claudius  attempt  to  make  good  his  claims  ? 

1 1.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Appius  on  this  occasion  1 

12.  How  was  this  sentence  received  1 

13.  What  consequences  were  likely  to  ensue,  and  how  were    they 

averted ! 

14.  Was  not  this  pretence  a  false  one? 

15.  By  what  means  were  his  designs  frustrated! 

IP.  Under  what  pretence  did  Virginius  obtain  leave  of  absence? 

17  What  measures  did  he  take  on  his  arrival  ? 

1 8.  How  was  the  trial  conducted  ? 

1 9  How  did  Virginia  support  this  trying  scene  ? 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  115 

20.  What  was  the  general  opinion  of  the  auditors? 

21  Did  the  arguments  of  Virginius  induce  Appius  to  forego  his  ini 
quitous  designs  7 

22.  Were  his  commands  obeyed  7 

23.  What  was  the  request  of  Virginius  ? 

24.  Was  this  favour  granted  1 

25.  Describe  this  affecting  scene  7 
20.  What  was  the  catastrophe  1 

27.  What  followed  ? 

28.  What  use  did  he  make  of  this  dreadful  circumstance  7 

29.  What  was  the  effect  of  his  address  on  the  army  ] 

30.  How  was  Appius  employed  in  the  mean  time  7 

3 1 .  Did  the  senate  second  his  designs  7 

32.  Did  the  people  accede  to  this  proposal  7 

33.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  tyrants  7 


SECTION  III. 

1.  IN  the  mean  time,  these  intestine  tumults  produced 
weakness  within  the  state,  and  confidence  in  the  enemy 
abroad.  The  wars  with  the  ./E'qui  and  the  Vol'sci  still 
continued ;  and,  as  each  year  some  trifling  advantage  was 
obtained  over  the  Romans,  they,  at  last,  advanced  so  far,  as 
to  make  their  incursions  to  the  very  walls  of  Rome.*  C  u.  c 
2.  But  not  the  courage  only  of  the  Romans,  their  £  309. 
other  virtues  also,  particularly  their  justice,  seemed  dimin- 
ished by  these  contests. 

3.  The  tribunes  of  the  people  now  grew  more  turbulent ; 
they  proposed  two  laws  :  one  to  permit  plebeians  to  inter- 
marry with  the  patricians  ;  and  the  other,  to  permit  them  to 
be  admitted  to  the  consulship  also.  4.  The  senators  received 
these  proposals  with  indignation,  and  seemed  resolved  to 
undergo  the  utmost  extremities,  rather  than  submit  to  enact 
these  laws.  However,  finding  their  resistance  only  in- 
creased the  commotions  of  the  state,  they,  at  last,  consented 
to  pass  that  concerning  marriages,  hoping  that  this  conces- 
sion would  satisfy  the  people.  5.  But  they  were  to  be  ap- 
peased for  a  very  short  time  only ;  for,  returning,  to  their 
old  custom  of  refusing  to  enlist  upon  the  approach  of  an 
enemy,  the  consuls  were  obliged  to  hold  a  private  confer- 
ence with  the  chief  of  the  senate,  where,  after  many  debates, 
Clau'dius  proposed  an  expedient,  as  the  most  probable  means 

*  They  were,  however,  defeated,  first  by  the  consul  Vale'riu*,  and 
next,  still  more  decisively  by  the  consuls  Quinc'tius  and  Fu'rius. 


116  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

of  satisfying  the  people  in  the  present  conjuncture.  6.  This 
was  to  create  six  or  eight  governors  in  the  room  of  consuls, 
whereof  one  half,  at  least,  should  be  patricians.  7.  This 
project,  which  was,  in  fact,  granting  what  the  people  de- 
manded, pleased  the  whole  meeting,  and  it  was  agreed,  that 
the  consuls  should,  contrary  to  their  usual  custom,  begin  by 
asking  the  opinion  of  the  youngest  senator.  8.  Upon 
assembling  the  senate,  one  of  the  tribunes  accused  them  of 
holding  secret  meetings,  and  managing  dangerous  designs 
against  the  people.  The  consuls,  on  the  other  hand,  averred 
their  innocence ;  and  to  demonstrate  their  sincerity,  gave 
leave  to  any  of  the  younger  members  of  the  house  to  pro- 
pound their  opinions.  9.  These  remaining  silent,  such  of 
the  older  senators,  as  were  known  to  be  popular,  began  by 
observing  that  the  people  ought  to  be  indulged  in  their  re- 
quest ;  that  none  so  well  deserved  power,  as  those  who 
were  most  instrumental  in  gaining  it ;  and  that  the  city  could 
not  be  free  until  all  were  reduced  to  perfect  equality. 
Clau'dius  spoke  next,  and  broke  out  into  bitter  invectives 
against  the  people  ;  asserting  that  it  was  his  opinion  that 
the  law  should  not  pass.  10.  This  produced  some  disturb- 
ance among  the  plebeians  ;  at  length,  Genu'tius  proposed, 
as  had  been  preconcerted,  that  six  governors  should  be  an- 
nually chosen,  with  consular  authority ;  three  from  the 
senate,  and  three  from  the  people ;  and  that,  when  the  time 
of  their  magistracy  should  be  expired,  it  Avould  be  seen 
whether  they  would  have  the  same  office  continued,  or 
whether  the  consulship  should  be  established  upon  its  for- 
mer footing.  11.  This  project  was  eagerly  embraced  by 
the  people ;  yet  so  fickle  were  the  multitude,  that,  though 
many  of  the  plebeians  stood  candidates,  the  choice  wholly 
TJ.  c.  >  fell  upon  the  patricians  who  had  offered  themselves. 
310-3  12-  These  new  magistrates  were  called  Military 
Tribunes ;  they  were,  at  first,  but  three :  afterwards  they 
wrere  increased  to  four,  and  at  length  to  six  ;  and  they  had 
the  power  and  ensigns  of  consuls  :  yet,  that  power  being 
divided  among  a  number,  each  singly  was  of  less  authority. 
13.  The  first  that  were  chosen  continued  in  office  only 
about  three  months,  the  augurs  having  found  something 
amiss  in  the  ceremonies  of  their  election. 

14.  The  military  tribunes  being  deposed,  the  consuls  once 
more  came  into  office  ;  and  in  order  to  lighten  the  weight 
of  business  which  they  were  obliged  to  sustain,  a  new  office 
was  created  ;  namely,  that  of  Censors,  who  were  to  be 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  117 

chosen  every  fifth  year.*  15.  Their  business  was  to  take 
an  estimate  of  the  number  and  estates  of  the  people,  and  to 
distribute  them  into  their  proper  classes  :  to  inspect  into  the 
lives  and  manners  of  their  fellow  citizens  ;  to  degrade  sen- 
ators for  misconduct ;  to  dismount  knights,  and  to  remove 
plebeians  from  their  tribes  into  an  inferior  class,  in  case  of 
misdemeanor.  16.  The  first  censors  were  Papir'ius  and 
Sempro'nius,  both  patricians ;  and  from  this  order  censors 
continued  to  be  elected  for  nearly  a  hundred  years. 

17.  This  new  creation  served  to  restore  peace  for  some 
time   among  the   orders  ;    and  a  triumph  gained  over  the 
Vol'scians,  by  Gega'nius  the  consul,  added  to  the  universal 
satisfaction  that  reigned  among  the  people. 

18.  This  calm,  however,  was  but  of  short  continuance ; 
for,  some  time  after,  a  famine  pressing  hard  upon  the    C  u.  c. 
poor,  the  usual  complaints  against  the  rich  were  re-   ^313. 
newed ;  and  these,  as  before,  proving  ineffectual,  produced 
new  seditions.     19.  The  consuls  were  accused  of  neglect, 
in  not  having  laid  in  proper  quantities  of  corn :  they,  how- 
ever, disregarded  the  murmurs  of  the  populace,  content  with 
usingevery  exertion  to  supply  the  pressing  necessity.!  20.  But, 
though   they  did   all   that  could   be   expected  from   active 
magistrates  in  procuring  provisions,  and  distributing  them 
to  the  poor :    yet  Spu'rius   Mae'lius,  a  rich   knight,  who 
had  bought  up  all  the  corn  of  Tuscany,  by  far  outshone 
them  in  liberality.     21.  This  demagogue,  inflamed  with  a 
secret  desire  of  becoming  powerful  by  the  contentions  in  the 
state,  distributed  corn  in  great  quantities  among  the  poorer 
sort  each  day,  till  his  house  became  the  asylum  of  all  such 
as  wished  to  exchange  a  life  of  labour  for  one  of  lazy  depend- 
ence.    22.  When  he  had  thus  gained  a  sufficient  number  of 
pnrtisans,  he  procured  large  quantities  of  arms  to  be  brought 
into  his  house  by  night,  and  formed  a  conspiracy,  by  which 

s  to  obtain  the  command,  while  some  of  the  tribunes, 
whom  IK-  had  found  means  to  corrupt,  were  to  act  under 

*  The  duty  of  the  censors,  at  first,  was  merely  to  perform  the  census, 
or  numbering  of  the  people.  It  was  by  degrees  that  they  became 
Magistri  Jlforum,  or  inspectors  and  regulators  of  men's  lives  and 
manners. 

^j-  They  appointed  an  extraordinary  magistrate,  under  the  title  of 
snjifrinifnilfiit  of  firui-isiotis,  and  the  person  named  for  this  office,  L. 
Minutius,  an  active  and  prudent  man,  irnmcdiatclv  sent  his  agents  into 
the  neighbouring  countries  to  buy  com ;  but  little,  however  was  pro- 
cured, as  Ma;lius  had  been  beforehand  with  him.  (Liv.  1.  iv.  c.  13,  14.) 


118  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

him,  in  seizing  upon  the  liberties  of  his  country.  23 
Minu'tius  soon  discovered  the  plot,  and,  informing  the  sen 
ate,  they  immediately  resolved  to  create  a  dictator,  who  should 
have  the  power  of  quelling  the  conspiracy  without  appeal 
ing  to  the  people.  24.  Cincinna'tus,  who  was  now  eighty 
years  old,  was  chosen  once  more  to  rescue  his  country  from 
impending  danger.  25.  He  began  by  summoning  Mre'lius 
to  appear,  who  refused  to  obey.  He  next  sent  Aha'la,  the 
master  of  the  horse,  to  compel  his  attendance ;  when,  meet- 
ing him  in  the  forum,  Aha'la,  on  his  refusal,  killed  him  upon 
the  spot.  The  dictator  applauded  the  resolution  of  his 
officer,  and  commanded  the  conspirator's  goods  to  be  sold, 
his  house  to  be  demolished,  and  his  stores  to  be  distributed 
among  the  people.* 

26.  The  tribunes  of  the  people  were  much  enraged  at 
the  death  of  Mae'lius.  In  order,  therefore,  to  punish  the 
senate  at  the  next  election,  instead  of  consuls,  they  insisted 
u.  c.  }  upon  restoring  the  military  tribunes,  and  the  senate 
315.5  were  obliged  to  comply.  The  next  year,  however, 
the  government  returned,  to  its  ancient  channel,  and  consuls 
were  chosen. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  consequence  of  those  intestine  tumults  related  in  the 

preceding  section  1 

2.  Was  it  their  courage  only  that  was  impaired  by  them  1 

3.  How  did  the  tribunes  conduct  themselves  1 

4.  How  were  these  proposals  received  1 

5.  Did  it  answer  the  desired  end  1 

*  The  guilt  of  Mse'lius  was  never  proved,  and  no  arms  were  fuund 
when  his  house  was  searched.  The  charge  of  aiming  at  royalty  is  more 
than  absurd ;  it  is  morally  impossible.  He  seems  to  have  aimed  at 
opening  the  higher  offices  of  state  to  the  plebeians,  and  to  have  looked 
upon  the  consulship  with  too  eager  desire.  He  fell  a  sacrifice,  to  deter 
the  plebeians  from  aiming  at  breaking  up  a  patrician  monopoly  of  power. 
It  is  painful  to  see  Cincinna'tus,  at  the  close  of  a  long  and  illustrious, 
life,  countenancing,  if  not  suggesting  this  wanton  murder.  But,  as 
Niebuhr  remarks,  "  no  where  have  characters  been  more  cruel,  no  where 
has  the  voice  of  conscience  against  the  views  of  faction  been  so  defied, 
as  in  the  aristocratic  republics,  and  not  those  of  antiquity  only.  Men, 
otherwise  of  spotless  conduct,  have  frequently  shed  the  purest  and  noblest 
blood,  influenced  by  fanaticism,  and  often  without  any  resentment,  in 
the  service  of  parly." 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  119 

6.  What  expedient  was  resorted  to  1 

7.  How  was  it  received  ! 

8.  What  happened  on  assembling  the  senate  ! 

9.  Did  they  avail  themselves  of  this  permission,  and  what  farther 

passed  on  this  occasion  1 

10.  Was  his  opinion  agreeable  to  the  people  ! 
What  new  proposition  was  offered  by  Genutius  ! 

11.  Was  this  plan  adopted  and  acted  upon? 

12.  What  were  the  name,  number,  and  powers  of  these  new  magistrates! 

13.  How  long  did  they  continue  in  office! 

14.  What  government  was  substituted  ? 

15.  What  were  the  duties  of  the  censors! 

16.  Who  were  the  first  censors! 

17.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  new  creation  ! 

18.  Was  this  satisfaction  lasting! 

19.  How  were  the  consuls  affected  by  it! 

20.  21.  Through  what  means  did  Spurius  Malms  obtain  credit  for  bring 

more  liberal  than  the  consuls  !  And  what  was  his  real  object ! 

22.  How  did  he  proceed  in  his  designs  against  the  liberties  of  his 

country ! 

23.  By  what  means  was  the  plot  frustrated ! 

24.  Who  was  appointed  dictator ! 

25.  What  steps  did  he  take  ! 

26.  How  were  these  rigorous  measures  received! 


SECTION  IV. 


1.  THE  Ve'ians  had  long  been  the  rivals  of  Rome :  they 
had  even  taken  the  opportunity  of  internal  distresses  to 
ravage  its  territories,  and  had  even  threatened  its  ambassa- 
dors sent  to  complain  of  these  injuries,  with  outrage.  2.  It 
seemed,  now,  therefore,  determined  that  the  city  of  Ve'ii, 
whatever  it  might  cost,  should  fall ;  and  the  Romans  accord- 
ingly s;it  cb^wn  regularly  before  it,  and  prepared  for  a  long 
and  painful  resistance.  3.  The  strength  of  the  place  may 
be  inferred  from  the  continuance  of  the  siege,  which  lasted 
lor  ton  years ;  during  which  time,  the  army  continued  en- 
camped round  it,  lying,  in  winter,  under  tents  made  of  the 
skins  of  beasts,  and,  in  summer,  driving  on  the  operations  o/ 
the  attack.  4.  Various  were  the  successes,  and  many  were 
the  commanders  that  directed  the  siege ;  sometimes  all  their 
works  were  destroyed,  and  many  of  their  men  cut  ofT  by 
sallies  from  the  town  ;  sometimes  they  were  annoyed  by  an 
army  of  Veians,  who  attempted  to  bring  assistance  from 
without.  5.  A  siege  so  bloody  seemed  to  threaten  depopu- 


i20  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

lation  to  Rome  itself,  by  a  continual  drain  of  its  forces ;  so 
that  a  law  was  obliged  to  be  made,  for  all  bachelors  to  marry 
the  widows  of  the  soldiers  who  were  slain.  6.  Fu'rius 
Camil'lus  was  now  created  dictator,  and  to  him  was  en- 
trusted the  sole  power  of  managing  the  long  protracted  war. 
7.  Camil'lus,  who,  without  intrigue  or  solicitation,  had 
raised  himself  to  the  first  eminence  in  the  state,  had  been 
made  one  of  the  censors  some  time  before,  and  was  con- 
sidered as  the  head  of  that  office ;  he  was  afterwards  made 
a  military  tribune,  and  had,  in  this  post,  gained  several  ad- 
vantages over  the  enemy.  8.  It  was  his  great  courage  and 
abilities  in  the  above  offices  that  made  him  be  thought  most 
worthy  to  serve  his  country  on  this  pressing  occasion. 
9.  Upon  his  appointment,  numbers  of  the  people  flocked  to 
his  standard,  confident  of  success  under  so  experienced  a 
commander.  10.  Conscious,  however,  that  he  was  unable 
to  take  the  city  by  storm,  he,  with  vast  labour,  opened  a 
passage  under  ground,  which  led  into  the  very  midst  of  the 
citadel.  11.  Certain  thus  of  success,  and  finding  the  city 
incapable  of  relief,  he  sent  to  the  senate  desiring,  that  all 
who  chose  to  share  in  the  plunder  of  Ve'ii,  should  im- 
mediately repair  to  the  army.  12.  Then,  giving  his  direc- 
tions how  to  enter  at  the  breach,  the  city  was  instantly  filled 
with  his  legions,  to  the  amazement  and  consternation  of  the 
besieged,  who,  but  a  moment  before,  had  rested  in  perfect 
security.  13.  Thus,  like  a  second  Troy,*  was  the  city  of 
Ve'ii  taken,  after  a  ten  years'  siege,  and,  with  its  spoils, 
enriched  the  conquerors  ;  while  Camil'lus  himself,  trans- 
ported with  the  honour  of  having  subdued  the  rival  of  his 
native  city,  triumphed  after  the  manner  of  the  kings  of 
Rome,  having  his  chariot  drawn  by  four  milk-white  horses ; 
a  distinction  which  did  not  fail  to  disgust  the  majority  of  the 
spectators,  as  they  considered  those  as  sacred,  and  more 
proper  for  doing  honour  to  their  gods  than  their  generals. 

14.  His  usual  good  fortune  attended  Camil'lus  in  another 
expedition  against  the  Falis'ci.  He  routed  their  army,  and 
besieged  their  capital  city  Fale'rii,  which  threatened  a  long 
and  vigorous  resistance.  15.  The  reduction  of  this  little 
place  would  have  been  scarcely  worth  mentioning-  in  this 

*  The  account  of  the  seige  of  Ve'ii  is  full  of  improbabilities,  and  the 
story  of  the  mine  is  utterly  impossible,  for  without  a  compass  and  a  good 
plan  of  the  city,  such  a  work  could  not  have  been  formed.  That  Ve'ii, 
however,  was  besieged  and  taken  at  this  time  is  very  certain,  but  that  is 
the  only  part  of  the  legend  on  which  we  can  rely. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  121 

scanty  page,  were  it  not  for  an  action  of  the  Roman  general, 
that  has  done  him  more  credit  with  posterity  than  all  his 
other  triumphs  united.  1C.  A  school-master,  who  had  the 
care  of  the  children  belonging  to  the  principal  men  in  the 
city,  having  found  means  to  decoy  them  into  the  Roman 
camp,  offered  to  put  them  into  the  hands  of  Camil'lus,  as 
the  surest  means  of  inducing  the  citizens  to  a  speedy  sur- 
render. 17.  The  general,  struck  with  the  treachery  of  a 
wretch  whose  duty  it  was  to  protect  innocence,  and  not  to 
betray  it,  for  some  time  regarded  the  traitor  with  a  stern 
eiience :  but,  at  last,  finding  words,  "  Execrable  villain !" 
cried  the  noble  Roman,  "  offer  thy  abominable  proposals 
o  creatures  like  thyself,  and  not  to  me ;  what,  though  we 
tre  the  enemies  of  your  city,  are  there  not  natural  ties  that 
bind  all  mankind,  which  should  never  be  broken  ?  There 
are  duties  required  from  us  in  war,  as  well  as  in  peace  :  we 
fight  not  against  the  age  of  innocence,  but  against  men — 
men  who  have  used  us  ill  indeed ;  but  yet,  whose  crimes 
are  virtues,  when  compared  to  thine.  Against  such  base 
acts,  let  it  be  my  duty  to  use  only  the  Roman  ones — valour 
and  arms."  18.  So  saying,  he  ordered  him  to  be  stript,  his 
hands  to  be  tied  behind  him,  and,  in  that  ignominious  man- 
ner, to  be  whipped  into  the  town  by  his  own  scholars.  19. 
This  generous  behaviour  in  Camil'lus  effected  more  than 
his  arms  could  do  ;  the  magistrates  of  the  town  submitted  to 
the  senate,  leaving  to  Camil'lus  the  condition  of  their  sur- 
render ;  who  only  fined  them  a  sum  of  money  to  satisfy  the 
army,  and  received  them  under  the  protection,  and  into  the 
alliance,  of  Rome. 

20.  Notwithstanding  the  veneration  which  the  virtues  of 
Camil'lus  had  excited  abroad,  they  seemed  but  little  adapted 
to  command  the  respect  of  the  turbulent  tribunes  at  home, 
who  raised  fresh  accusations  against  him  every  day.  21.  To 
the  charge  of  being  an  opposer  of  their  intended  emigration 
from  Rome  to  Ve'ii,  they  added  that  of  his  having  concealed 
a  part  of  the  plunder  of  that  city,  particularly  two  brazen 
ffntcs,  for  his  own  use  ;  and  appointed  him  a  day  on  which 
to  appear  before  the  people.  22.  Camil'lus,  finding  the 
multitude  exasperated  against  him  on  many  accounts,  and 
detesting  their  ingratitude,  resolved  not  to  await  the  igno- 
miny of  n  trial ;  but  embracing  his  wife  and  children,  pre- 
pared to  depart  from  Rome.  23.  He  had  already  passed  :is 
Hr  as  one  of  the  gates,  unattended  and  unlamented.  There 
Hie  could  suppress  his  indignation  no  longer,  but,  turning  his 


122  HISTORY    OF    ROME, 

face  to  the  Capitol,  and  lifting  up  his  hands  to  heaven,  lie 
entreated  all  the  gods,  that  his  countrymen  might  one  day 
be  sensible  of  their  injustice  and  ingratitude.  So  saying, 
he  passed  forward  to  take  refuge  at  Ar'dea,  a  town  at  a  little 
distance  from  Rome,  where  he  afterwards  learned  that  he  had 
been  fined  fifteen  thousand  ases*  by  the  tribunes  at  Rome. 

24.  The  tribunes  were  not  a  little  pleased  with  their 
triumphs  over  this  great  man ;  but  they  soon  had  reason  to 
repent  their  injustice,  and  to  wish  for  the  assistance  of  one, 
who  alone  was  able  to  protect  their  country  from  ruin  :  for 
now  a  more  terrible  and  redoubtable  enemy  than  the  Romans 
had  ever  yet  encountered,  began  to  make  their  appearance. 
25.  The  Gauls,  a  barbarous  nation,  had,  about  two  centuries 
before,  made  an  irruption  from  beyond  the  Alps,  and  settled 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Italy.  They  had  been  invited  over 
by  the  deliciousness  of  the  wines,  and  the  mildness  of  the 
climate.  26.  Wherever  they  came  they  dispossessed  the 
original  inhabitants,  as  they  were  men  of  superior  courage, 
extraordinary  stature,  fierce  in  aspect,  barbarous  in  their 
manners,  and  prone  to  emigration.  27.  A  body  of  these, 
wild  from  their  original  habitations,  was  now  besieging 
Clu'sium,  a  city  of  Etru'ria,  under  the  conduct  of  Brennus, 
their  king.  28.  The  inhabitants  of  Clu'sium,  frightened  at 
their  numbers,  and  still  more  at  their  savage  appearance, 
entreated  the  assistance,  or,  at  least,  the  mediation  of  the 
Romans.  29.  The  senate,  who  had  long  made  it  a  maxim 
never  to  refuse  succour  to  the  distressed,  were  willing,  pre- 
viously, to  send  ambassadors  to  the  Gauls,  to  dissuade  them 
from  their  enterprise,  and  to  show  the  injustice  of  the  irrup- 
tion. 30.  Accordingly,  three  young  senators  were  chosen 
out  of  the  family  of  the  Fabii,  to  manage  the  commission, 
who  seemed  more  fitted  for  the  field  than  the  cabinet.  31. 
Brennus  received  them  with  a  degree  of  complaisance  that 
irgued  but  little  of  the  barbarian,  and  desiring  to  know  the 
business  of  their  embassy,  was  answered,  according  to  their 
instructions,  that  it  was  not  customary  in  Italy  to  make  war, 
but  on  just  grounds  of  provocation,  and  that  they  desired  to 
know  what  offence  the  citizens  of  Clu'sium  had  given  to 
the  king  of  the  Gauls.  32.  To  this  Brennus  sternly  replied, 
that  the  rights  of  valiant  men  lay  in  their  swords  ;  that  the 
Romans  themselves  had  no  right  to  the  many  cities  they 
had  conquered;  and  that  he  had  particular  reasons  of  resent- 

*  The  as  was  a  brass  coin,  about  three  farthings  of  our  money. 


THE   COMMONWEALTH.  123 

ment  against  the  people  of  Clu'sium,  as  they  refused  to  part 
with  those  lands,  which  they  had  neither  hands  to  till,  nor 
inhabitants  to  occupy.  33.  The  Roman  ambassadors,  who 
were  but  little  used  to  hear  the  language  of  a  conqueror,  for 
a  while  dissembled  their  resentment  at  this  haughty  reply  ; 
but,  upon  entering  the  besieged  city,  instead  of  acting  as 
ambassadors,  and  forgetful  of  their  sacred  character,  they 
headed  the  citizens  in  a  sally  against  the  besiegers.  In  this 
combat  Fa'bius  Ambus' tus  killed  a  Gaul  with  his  own  hand, 
but  was  discovered  in  the  act  of  despoiling  him  of  his  ar- 
mour. 34.  A  conduct  so  unjust  and  unbecoming  excited 
the  resentment  of  Brennus,  who,  having  made  his  complaint 
by  a  herald  to  the  senate,  and  finding  no  redress,  broke  up  • 
the  siege  and  marched  away  with  his  conquering  army  di- 
rectly for  Rome.  35.  The  countries  through  which  the 
Gauls  made  their  rapid  progress,  gave  up  all  hopes  of  safety 
upon  their  approach ;  being  terrified  at  their  numbers,  the 
fierceness  of  their  natures,  and  their  dreadful  preparations 
for  war.  36.  But  the  rage  and  impetuosity  of  this  wild 
people  were  directed  solely  against  Rome.  They  went  on 
without  doing  the  least  injury  in  their  march,  breathing  ven- 
geance only  against  the  Romans.  A  terrible  engagement 
soon  after  ensued,  in  which  the  Romans  were  defeated  near 
the  river  Al'lia,  with  the  loss  of  about  forty  thousand  men.* 
37.  Rome,  thus  deprived  of  succour,  prepared  for  every 
extremity.  The  inhabitants  endeavoured  to  hide  themselves 
in  the  neighbouring  towns,  or  resolved  to  await  the  con- 
queror's fury,  and  end  their  lives  with  the  ruin  of  their  na- 
tive city.t  38.  But,  more  particularly,  the  ancient  senators 
and  priests,  struck  with  a  religious  enthusiasm,  on  this  oc- 
casion resolved  to  devote  their  lives  to  atone  for  the  crimes 
of  the  people,  and,  habited  in  their  robes  of  ceremony, 
placed  themselves  in  the  forum,  on  their  ivory  chairs.  39. 
The  Gauls,  in  the  mean  time,  were  giving  a  loose  to  their 
triumph,  in  sharing  and  enjoying  the  plunder  of  the  enemy's 
camp.  Had  they  immediately  marched  to  Rome,  upon 
gaining  the  victory,  the  Capitol  would,  in  all  probability, 
have  been  taken  ;  but  they  continued  two  days  feasting  upon 

•  This  day  was  from  henceforth  marked  as  unlucky  in  their  calendar, 
and  called  Allicn'si.s. 

•f-  Among  others,  the  Vestals  fled  from  the  city,  carrying  with  them 
the  two  Palladiums  and  the  sacred  fire.  They  took  shelter  at  Caere,  a 
town  of  Etru'ria,  where  they  continued  to  celebrate  their  religious  rites  • 
from  this  circumstance  religious  rites  acquired  the  name  of  ceremonies, 


124  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the  field  of  battle,  and,  with  barbarous  pleasure,  exulting 
amidst  their  slaughtered  enemies.  40.  On  the  third  day 
after  this  easy  victory,  Brennus  appeared  with  all  his  forces 
before  the  city.  He  was  at  first  much  surprised  to  find  the 
gates  open  to  receive  him,  and  the  walls  defenceless ;  so 
that  he  began  to  impute  the  unguarded  situation  of  the  place 
to  a  Roman  stratagem.  After  proper  precaution,  he  entered 
the  city,  and,  marching  into  the  forum,  beheld  there  the 
ancient  senators  sitting  in  their  order,  observing  a  profound 
silence,  unmoved  and  undaunted.  41.  The  splendid  habits, 
the  majestic  gravity,  and  the  venerable  looks  of  these  old 
men,  who,  in  their  time,  had  all  borne  the  highest  offices  of 
state,  awed  the  barbarous  enemy  into  reverence  ;  they  mis- 
took them  for  the  tutelar  deities  of  the  place,  and  began  to 
offer  blind  adoration ;  till  one,  more  forward  than  the  rest, 
putting  forth  his  hand  to  stroke  the  beard  of  Papyr'ius,  an 
insult  the  noble  Roman  could  not  endure,  he  lifted  up  his 
ivory  sceptre,  and  struck  the  savage  to  the  ground.  42. 
This  proved  to  be  a  signal  for  general  slaughter.  Papyr'ius 
fell  first,  and  all  the  rest  shared  his  fate  without  mercy  or 
distinction.*  The  fierce  invaders  pursued  their  slaughter 
for  three  days  successively,  sparing  neither  sex  nor  age ; 
then,  setting  fire  to  the  city ,  burnt  every  house  to  the  ground. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Veians  ? 

2.  What  resolution  was  adopted  in  consequence  1 

3.  Was  Veil  a  strong  place  ? 

4.  Did  the  besieged  make  a  vigorous  resistance  ? 

5.  What  consequences  were   likely  to  ensue,  and  how  were  they 

obviated  1 

6.  To  whom  was  the  conduct  of  the  war  now  committed  ? 

7.  Who  was  Camillus  1 

8.  By  what  means  did  he  attain  his  present  dignity 

9.  What  was  the  consequence  of  his  appointment  ? 

10.  What  plan  did  he  adopt  to  take  the  city  1 

1 1.  How  did  he  next  proceed  ? 
)2.  What  followed  ? 

"  3.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  capture,  and  how  did  Camillus 
comport  himself! 

*  This  self-devotion  was  in  consequence  of  a  vow  made  by  these 
brave  old  men,  which  Fa'bins,  the  Pontifex  Maximus  pronounced  in 
their  names.  The  Romans  believed  that,  by  thus  devoting  themselves  to 
the  internal  gods,  disorder  and  confusion  were  brought  among  the  enemy. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  125 

14.  What  was  Camillus's  next  exploit1? 

15.  Was  this  a  conquest  of  importance  1 

16.  Relate  the  particulars  1 

17.  How  was  his  proposal  received  ? 

18.  How  was  the  traitor  punished  ? 

19.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  conduct  1 

20.  Was  Camillus  universally  respected  1 

21.  What  charges  were  brought  against  him? 

22.  Did  Camillus  abide  the  event  of  a  trial  ? 

23.  Was  he  resigned  to  his  fate,  and  whither  did  he  retire  1 

24.  What  followed  his  departure  1 
15.  Who  was  the  enemy  1 

26.  What  were  the  conduct  and  character  of  the  Gauls  1 

27.  How  were  they  employed  at  this  conjuncture  ? 

28.  What  measure  did  the  Clusians  adopt  for  their  defence  1 

29.  Was  their  application  successful  1 

30.  Who  were  appointed  for  this  purpose  ? 

31.  How  were  they  received  ? 

32.  What  was  the  reply  of  Brennus  ? 

33.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  ambassadors  * 

34.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  improper  conduct  1 

35.  What  sensations  were  excited  in  the  countries  through  which  they. 

passed  ? 

36.  Did  the  Gauls  commit  any  ravages  on  their  march  1 

37.  What  measures  were  adopted  at  Rome  1 

38.  Who  more  particularly  displayed  their  devotedness  on  this  occasion? 

39.  What  use  did  the  Gauls  make  of  their  victory  1 

40.  What  happened  on  their  arrival  before  the  city? 

41.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  spectacle  1 

42.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  boldness  1 


SECTION  V. 

1.  ALL  the  hopes  of  Rome  were  now  placed  in  the 
Capitol ;  every  thing  without  that  fortress  formed    C  u.  c. 
an  extensive  scene  of  misery,  desolation,  and  despair.     £  361 . 

2.  Brennus  first  summoned  it,  with  threats,  to  surrender, 
but  in  vain ;  then  resolving  to  besiege  it  in  form,  hemmed  it 
round  with  his  army.     The  Romans,  however,  repelled  the. 
attempt  with  great  bravery  :  despair  had  supplied  them  with 
that  perseverance  and  vigour  which  they  seemed  to  want 
when  in  prosperity. 

3.  In  the  meanwhile,  Brennus  carried  on  the  siege  with 
extreme  ardour.     He  hoped  to  starve  the  garrison  into  a 
capitulation ;   but  they,  sensible  of  his  intent,  although  in 
actual  want,  caused  loaves  to  be  thrown  into  his  camp,  to 

L  2 


126  HISTORY  or  KOME. 

convince  him  of  the  futility  of  such  expectations.  4.  His 
hopes  were  soon  after  revived,  when  some  of  his  soldiers 
came  to  inform  him,  that  they  had  discovered  footsteps,* 
which  led  up  to  the  rock,  by  which  they  supposed  the 
Capitol  might  be  surprised.  5.  Accordingly,  a  chosen  body 
of  his  men  were  ordered  by  night  upon  this  dangerous  service, 
which,  with  great  labour  and  difficulty,  they  almost  effected. 
6.  They  were  got  upon  the  very  wall ;  the  Roman  sentinel 
was  fast  asleep  ;  their  dogs  within  gave  no  signal,  and  all 
promised  an  instant  victory,  when  the  garrison  was  awakened 
by  the  gabbling  of  some  sacred  geese,  that  had  been  kept  in 
the  temple  of  Juno.  7.  The  besieged  soon  perceived  the 
imminence  of  their  danger,  and  each,  snatching  the  weapon 
that  first  presented  itself,  ran  to  oppose  the  assailants.  8.  M. 
Man'lius,  a  patrician  of  acknowledged  bravery,  was  the  first 
who  opposed  the  foe,  and  inspired  courage  by  his  example. 
He  boldly  mounted  the  rampart,  and,  at  one  effort,  threw 
two  Gauls  headlong  down  the  precipice ;  his  companions 
soon  came  to  his  assistance,  and  the  walls  were  cleared  of 
the  enemy  with  a  most  incredible  celerity .t 

9.  From  this  time  the  hopes  of  the  barbarians  began  to 
decline,  and  Brennus  wished  for  an  opportunity  of  raising 
the  siege  with  credit.!  His  soldiers  had  often  conferences 
with  the  besieged  while  upon  duty,  and  proposals  for  an 
accommodation  were  wished  for  by  the  common  men,  before 
the  chiefs  thought  of  a  congress.  At  length,  the  command- 
ers on  both  sides  came  to  an  agreement,  that  the  Gauls 
should  immediately  quit  the  city  and  territories,  upon  being 
paid  a  thousand  pounds  weight  of  gold.  10.  This  agree- 

*  These  were  the  footsteps  of  Pon'tius  Comin'ius,  who,  with  great 
prudence  and  bravery,  found  means  to  carry  a  message  from  Camil'lus 
to  the  Romans  in  the  Capi'tol,  and  to  return  with  the  appointment  of 
dictator  for  Camil'Ius. 

f  As  a  reward  for  this  essential  service,  every  soldier  gave  Man'lius 
a  small  quantity  of  corn  and  a  little  measure  of  wine,  out  of  his  scanty 
allowance  ;  a  present  of  no  mean  value  in  their  then  distressed  situation. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  captain  of  the  guard,  who  ought  to  have  kept 
the  sentinels  to  their  duty,  was  thrown  headlong  from  the  Capitol.  In 
memory  of  this  event,  a  goose  was  annually  carried  in  triumph  on  a  soft 
litter,  finely  adorned  ;  whilst  dogs  were  held  in  abhorrence,  and  one 
impaled  every  year  on  a  branch  of  elder. 

$  As  the  Gauls  suffered  the  bodies  of  the  Romans,  who  were  slain  in 
their  frequent  encounters,  to  lie  unburied,  the  stench  of  their  putrefaction 
occasioned  a  plague  to  break  out.  which  carried  off  great  numbers  of  the 
armv  of  Brennus. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH. 


127 


Minliui  defending  the  Capitol. 

ment  being  confirmed  by  oath  on  either  side,  the  gold  was 
brought  forth.  But,  upon  weighing,  the  Gauls  fraudulently 
attempted  to  kick  the  beam,  of*  which  the  Romans  com- 
plaining, Brennus  insultingly  cast  his  sword  and  belt  into 
the  scale,  crying  out  that  the  only  portion  of  the  vanquished 
was  to  suffer.  1 1.  By  this  reply,  the  Romans  saw  that  they 
were  at  the  victor's  mercy,  and  knew  it  was  in  vain  to  ex- 
postulate against  any  conditions  he  should  please  to  impose. 
12.  But  while  they  were  thus  debating  upon  the  payment, 
it  was  told  them  that  Camil'lus,  their  old  general,  was  at 
the  head  of  a  large  army,  hastening  to  their  relief,  and  en- 
tering the  gates  of  Rome.  13.  Camil'lus  actually  appeared 
soon  alter,  and  entering  the  place  of  controversy,  with  the 
air  of  one  who  was  resolved  not  to  suffer  imposition,  de- 
manded the  cause  of  the  contest ;  of  which  being  informed, 
he  ordered  the  gold  to  be  taken  and  carried  back  to  the 
Capitol :  "  For  it  has  ever  been,"  cried  he,  "  the  manner 
with  us  Romans,  to  ransom  our  country,  not  with  gold,  but 
with  iron ;  it  is  I  only  that  am  to  make  peace,  as  being  the 
dictator  of  Rome,  and  my  sword  alone  shall  purchase  it." 
14.  Upon  this  a  battle  ensued,  the  Gauls  were  entirely 
routed,  and  such  a  slaughter  followed,  that  the  Roman  ter- 
ritories were  soon  cleared  of  the  invaders.  Thus,  by  the 
bravery  of  Camil'lus,  was  Rome  delivered  from  its  enemy.* 

*  The  authenticity  of  this  narrative  is  more  than  suspicious.  Polyb'ius, 
the  most  accurate  of  the  Roman  historians,  says  that  the  Gauls  carried 
the  gold  home  with  them.  Sueto'niu*  confirms  this  account,  and  adds, 


128  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

15.  The  city  being  one  continued  heap  of  ruins,  except  the 
Capitol,  and  the  greatest  number  of  its  former  inhabitants 
having  gone  to  take  refuge  in  Ve'ii,  the  tribunes  of  the  people 
urged  for  the  removal  of  the  poor  remains  of  Rome  to  that  city, 
where  they  might  have  houses  to  shelter,  and  walls  to  defend 
them.  16.  On  this  occasion  Camil'lus  attempted  to  appease 
them  with  all  the  arts  of  persuasion ;  observing,  that  it  was 
unworthy  of  them,  both  as  Romans  and  men,  to  desert  the 
venerable  seat  of  their  ancestors,  where  they  had  been  en- 
couraged by  repeated  marks  of  divine  approbation,  in  order 
to  inhabit  a  city  which  they  had  conquered,  and  which 
wanted  even  the  good  fortune  of  defending  itself.  17.  By 
these,  and  such  like  remonstrances,  he  prevailed  upon  the 
people  to  go  contentedly  to  work ;  and  Rome  soon  began  to 
rise  from  its  ashes.* 

18.  We  have  already  seen  the  bravery  of  Man'lius  in 
defending  the  Capitol,  and  saving  the  last  remains  of  Rome 
For  this  the  people  were  by  no  means  ungrateful.  They 
built  him  a  house  near  the  place  where  his  valour  was  so 
conspicuous,  and  appointed  him  a  public  fund  for  his  sup- 
port. 19.  But  he  aspired  at  being  more  than  equal  to 
Camil'lus,  and  to  be  sovereign  of  Rome.  With  this  view 
he  laboured  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  populace,  paid 
their  debts,  and  railed  at  the  patricians,  whom  he  called 
their  oppressors.  20.  The  senate  was  not  ignorant  of  his 
speeches  or  his  designs,  and  created  Corne'lius  Cossus  dic- 
tator, with  a  view  to  curb  the  ambition  of  Man'lius.  21.  The 
dictator  soon  called  Man'lius  to  an  account  for  his  conduct. 
Man'lius,  however,  was  too  much  the  darling  of  the  popu- 
lace to  be  affected  by  the  power  of  Cossus,  Avho  was  obliged 
to  lay  down  his  office,  and  Man'lius  was  carried  from  con- 
finement in  triumph  through  the  city.  22.  This  success 
only  served  to  inflame  his  ambition.  He  now  began  to  talk 
of  a  division  of  the  lands  among  the  people,  insinuated  that 
there  should  be  no  distinctions  in  the  state ;  and,  to  give 
weight  to  his  discourses,  always  appeared  at  the  head  of  a 
large  body  of  the  dregs  of  the  people,  whom  largesses  had 

that  it  was  recovered  at  a  much  later  period  from  the  Galli  Seno'nes,  by 
Liv'ius  Dru'sus ;  and  that  on  this  occasion  Dru'sus  first  became  a  name 
in  the  Livian  family,  in  consequence  of  the  victorious  general  having 
killed  Drau'sus,  the  Gallic  leader. 

*  So  little  taste,  however,  for  order  and  beauty,  did  those  display  who 
had  the  direction  of  the  works,  that  the  city,  when  rebuilt,  was  even  less 
regular  than  in  the  time  of  Romulus. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  129 

made  his  followers.  23.  The  city  being  thus  filled  with 
sedition  and  clamour,  the  senate  had  recourse  to  another  ex- 
pedient, which  was,  to  oppose  the  power  of  Camil'lus  to 
that  of  the  demagogue.  Camil'lus,  accordingly,  being  made 
one  of  the  military  tribunes,  appointed  Man'lius  a  day  to 
answer  for  his  life.  24.  The  place  in  which  he  was  tried 
was  near  the  Capitol,  whither,  when  he  was  accused  of 
sedition,  and  of  aspiring  to  sovereignty,  he  turned  his  eyes, 
and  pointing  to  that  edifice,  put  them  in  mind  of  what  he 
had  there  done  for  his  country.  25.  The  multitude,  whose 
compassion  or  whose  justice  seldom  springs  from  rational 
motives,  refused  to  condemn  him,  so  long  as  he  pleaded  in 
sight  of  the  Capitol ;  but  when  he  was  brought  from  thence 
to  the  Pe'teline  grove,  where  the  Capitol  was  no  longer  in 
view,  they  condemned  him  to  be  thrown  headlong  from  the 
Tarpe'ian  rock.*  26.  Thus,  the  place  which  had  been  the 
theatre  of  his  glory,  became  that  of  his  punishment  and 
infamy.  His  house,  in  which  his  conspiracies  had  been 
secretly  carried  on,  and  which  had  been  built  as  the  reward 
of  his  valour,  was  ordered  to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  and 
his  family  were  forbidden  ever  after  to  assume  the  name  of 
Man'lius. 

27.  Thus  the  Romans  went  gradually  forward,  with  a 
mixture  of  turbulence  and  superstition  within  their  walls, 
and  successful  enterprises  without. 

28.  With  what  implicit  obedience  they  submitted  to  their 
pontiffs,  and  how  far  they  might  be  impelled  to  encounter 
even  death  itself,  at  their  command,  will  evidently  appear 
from  the  behaviour  of  Cur'tius,  about  this  time.     Upon  the 
opening  of  the  gulf  in  the  forum,  which  the  augurs     C  u.  c. 
affirmed  would  never  close  till  the  most  precious    ^  392. 
things  in  Rome  were  thrown  into  it,  this  heroic  man,  clad 
in   complete   armour,   and   mounted   on  horseback,   boldly 
leaped  into  the   midst,  declaring,  that  nothing  was   more 
truly  valuable  than  patriotism  and  military  virtue.    29.  The 
gulf,  say  the  historians,  closed  immediately  upon  this,  and 
Cur'tius  was  seen  no  more.t 

*  This  account  appears  so  absurd  as  to  be  scarcely  credible ;  in  fact, 
Manlius  was  first  tried  by  the  "  comitia  centuriata,"  and  acquitted.  Hi» 
second  trial  was  before  the  "  comitia  curiata,"  where  his  enemies,  the 
patricians,  alone  had  the  right  of  voting.  See  Introduction,  Chap.  Ill, 

•j-  Some  judicious  writers,  however,  acknowledge  that  the  chasm  was 
afterwards  filled  up  with  earth  and  rubbish.  (Livy,  1.  7.  c,  6.  Val.  MuxJ 
mus,  1.  5.  c.  6.  et  alii.) 


130  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

ii.  c.  >  30.  This  year  died  the  great  Camil'lus,  deservedly 
396.  5  regretted  by  all.  He  was  styled  a  second  Romulus, 
the  first  having  founded,  and  he  having  restored  the  city 
lie  is  said  never  to  have  fought  a  battle  without  gaining  a 
victory ;  never  to  have  besieged  a  city  without  taking  it. 
He  was  a  zealous  patriot,  ever  ready  to  dismiss  his  just 
resentments  for  the  affronts  he  received,  when  the  necessi- 
ties of  his  country  required  his  services. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  state  of  Rome  at  this  period  1 

2.  What  was  the  next  step  taken  by  Brennus,  and  how  did  it  succeed  1 

3.  In  what  manner  was  the  siege  carried  on  1 

4.  Did  he  consider  the  attempt  as  hopeless  1 

5.  What  advantage  did  he  take  of  this  information  ? 

6.  Was  the  attempt  successful  ? 

7.  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

8.  Was  there  any  particular  instance  of  valour  ? 

9.  What  effect  had  this  failure  on  the  mind  of  Brennus  1 

10.  In  what  manner  was  this  agreement  carried  into  execution! 

11.  What  inference  did  the  Romans  draw  from  this  insolent  speech? 

12.  What  agreeable  news  did  they  now  hear! 

13.  Was  this  information  correct? 

14.  What  followed  1 

15.  What  was  the  first  measure  proposed  after  this  deliverance* 

1 6.  Was  this  proposal  carried  into  effect  1 

1 7.  Were  his  remonstrances  successful  1 

18.  Was  the  bravery  of  Manlius  rewarded? 

1 9.  Was  he  content  with  these  favours  ? 

20.  What  measures  were  taken  to  oppose  his  designs  ? 

21.  Was  this  expedient  attended  with  success? 

22.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Manlius  after  this  ? 

23.  What  farther  measures  were  taken  to  punish  his  ambition? 

24.  What  defence  did  he  set  up  ? 

25.  .Was  his  plea  successful  ? 

26.  What  is  remarkable  in  his  punishment? 

27.  How  did  the  Roman  affairs  proceed  at  this  time  ? 

28.  Relate  a  memorable  Instance  of  the  obedience  paid  by  the  Romans 

to  their  pontiffs  or  priests  ? 

29.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  heroic  act  ? 

30    Wha«  happened  this  year,  and  what  was  the  character  of  Camillus? 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  131 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

SECTION  I. 

FROM  THE  WARS  WITH  THE  SAMNITES,  AND  THOSE  WITH 
PYRRHUS,  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  FIRST  PUNJ£  WAR; 
WHEN  THE  ROMANS  BEGAN  TO  EXTEND  THEIR  CONQUESTS 
BEYOND  ITALY. 

1.  THE  Romans  had  triumphed  over  the  Sab'ines,  the 
Etru'rians,  the  Latins,  the  Her'nici,  the  ^E'qui,  and  the 
Volsei ;  and  now  began  to  look  for  greater  conquests.  They 
accordingly  turned  their  arms  against  the  Sam'nites,  a  peo- 
ple descended  from  the  Sab'ines,  and  inhabiting  a  large  tract 
of  southern  Italy,  which  at  this  day  makes  a  considerable 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  2.  Vale'rius  Cor'vus",  and 
Corne'lius,  were  the  two  consuls  to  whose  care  it  first  fell 
to  manage  this  dreadful  contention  between  the  rivals. 

3.  Vale'rius  was  one  of  the  greatest  commanders  of  his 
time ;  he  was  surnamed  Cor'vus,  from  the  strange  circum- 
stance of  being  assisted  by  a  crow  in  a  single  combat,  in 
which  he  killed  a  Gaul  of  gigantic  stature.  4.  To  his  col- 
league's care  it  was  consigned  to  lead  an  army  to  Sam'nium, 
the  enemy's  capital,  while  Cor'vus  was  sent  to  relieve 
Cap'ua,  the  capital  of  the  Capin'ians.  5.  Never  was  a 
captain  more  fitted  for  command  than  he.  To  a  habit  na- 
turally robust  and  athletic,  he  joined  the  gentlest  manners  ; 
he  was  the  fiercest,  and  yet  the  most  good-natured  man  in 
the  army ;  and,  while  the  meanest  sentinel  was  his  com- 
panion, no  man  kept  them  more  strictly  to  their  duty;  but 
to  complete  his  character,  he  constantly  endeavoured  to  pre- 
serve his  dignity  by  the  same  arts  by  which  he  gained  it. 
6.  Such  soldiers  as  the  Romans  then  were,  hardened  by 
their  late  adversity,  and  led  on  by  such  a  general,  were  ur 
conquerable.  The  Samnites  were  the  bravest  men  they 
ever  yet  had  encountered,  and  the  contention  between  the 
two  nations  was  managed  on  both  sides  with  the  most  de- 
termined resolution.  7.  But  the  fortune  of  Rome  prevailed  ; 
the  Samnites  at  length  fled,  averring,  that  they  were  not 
able  to  withstand  the  fierce  looks,  and  the  fire-darting  eye* 
of  the  Romans.  8.  Corne'lius,  however,  was  not  at  first 
so  fortunate  ;  for  having  unwarily  led  his  army  into  a  defile, 


132  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

he  was  in  danger  of  being  cut  off,  had  not  De'cius  possessed 
himself  of  a  hill  which  commanded  the  enemy ;  so  that  the 
Samnites,  being  attacked  on  both  sides,  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter  ;  not  less  than  thirty  thousand  of  them  being 
left  dead  upon  the  field. 

9.  Some  time  after  this  victory,  the  forces  stationed  at 
Cap'ua  mutinying,  compelled  Quin'tinus,  an  eminent  old 
soldiefc  to  be  their  leader ;  and,  conducted  by  their  rage, 
more  than  by  their  general,  came  within  six  miles  of  the 
city.  10.  So  terrible  an  enemy,  almost  at  the  gates,  not  a 
little  alarmed  the  senate,  who  immediately  created  Vale'rius 
dictator,  and  sent  him  forth  with  an  army  to  oppose  them. 
11.  The  two  armies  were  now  drawn  up  against  each  other, 
while  fathers  and  sons  beheld  themselves  prepared  to  engage 
in  opposite  causes.  12.  Any  other  general  than  Corvus 
would,  perhaps,  have  brought  this  civil  war  to  extremity ;  but 
he,  knowing  his  influence  among  the  soldiery,  instead  of  go- 
ing forward  to  meet  the  mutineers  in  a  hostile  manner,  went 
with  the  most  cordial  friendship  to  embrace,  and  expostu 
late  with  his  old  acquaintances.  13.  His  conduct  had  tho 
desired  effect.  Quin'tius,  as  their  speaker,  solicited  no 
more  than  to  have  their  defection  from  their  duty  forgiven ; 
and  for  himself,  as  he  was  innocent  of  their  conspiracy,  he 
had  no  reason  to  solicit  pardon  for  offences.  14.  Thus  this 
defection,  which  threatened  danger  to  Rome,  was  repaired 
by  the  prudence  and  moderation  of  a  general,  whose  am- 
bition it  was  to  be  gentle  to  his  friends,  and  formidable  only 
to  his  enemies. 

15.  A  war  between  the  Romans  and  Latins  followed  soon 
after.  16.  As  their  habits,  arms,  and  language  were  the 
same,  the  exactest  discipline  was  necessary  to  prevent  con- 
fusion in  the  engagement.  Orders,  therefore,  were  issued, 
that  no  soldier  should  leave  his  ranks  on  pain  of  death.  17. 
With  these  injunctions,  both  armies  were  drawn  out  and 
ready,  when  Me'tius,  the  general  of  the  enemy's  cavalry, 
pushed  forward  from  his  lines,  and  challenged  any  knight  in 
the  Roman  army  to  single  combat.  18.  For  some  time 
there  was  a  general  pause,  no  soldier  daring  to  disobey  his 
orders,  till  Ti'tus  Man'lius,  son  of  the  consul  Man'lius, 
burning  with  shame  to  see  the  whole  body  of  the  Romans 
intimidated,  boldly  advanced  against  his  adversary.  19.  The 
soldiers,  on  both  sides,  for  a  while  suspended  the  general 
engagement,  to  be  spectators  of  this  fierce  encounter.  The 
two  champions  drove  their  horses  agai'ist  each  other  with 


THE    COMMONWEALTH  133 

great  violence :  Me 'tins  wounded  his  adversory's  horse  in 
the  neck  ;  but  Man'lius,  with  better  fortune,  killed  that  of 
Me'tius.  The  Latin  general,  fallen  to  the  ground,  for  a 
while  attempted  to  support  himself  upon  his  shield  ;  but  the 
Roman  followed  his  blows,  and  laid  him  dead  as  he  was 
endeavouring  to  rise ;  then  despoiling  him  of  his  armour, 
returned  in  triumph  to  his  father's  tent,  where  he  was  pre- 
paring for,  and  giving  orders  relative  to,  the  engagement. 

20.  However  he  might  have  been  applauded  by  his  fellow- 
soldiers,  being  as  yet  doubtful  what  reception  he  should  find 
with  his  father,  he  came  with  hesitation,  to  lay  the  enemy's 
spoils  at  his  feet,  and  with  a  modest  air  insinuated,  that  what 
he  had  done  was  entirely  from  a  spirit  of  hereditary  virtue. 

21.  Alas  !    he  was  soon  dreadfully  made  sensible  of  his 
error ;  when  his  father,  turning  away,  ordered  him  to  be  led 
publicly  forth  before  his  army.    Being  brought  forward,  the 
consul,  with  a  stern  countenance,  and  yet  with  tears,  spoke 
as  follows  :  "  Ti'tus  Man'lius,  as  thou  hast  regarded  neither 
the  dignity  of  the  consulship,  nor  the  commands  of  a  father; 
as  thou  hast  destroyed  military  discipline,  and  set  a  pattern 
of  disobedience  by  thy  example,  thou  hast  reduced  me  to 
the  deplorable  extremity  of  sacrificing  my  son  or  my  coun- 
try.    But  let  us  not  hesitate  in  this  dreadful  alternative ;  a 
thousand  lives  were  well  lost  in  such  a  cause  ;  nor  do  I  think 
that  thou  thyself  wilt  refuse  to  die,  when  thy  country  is  to 
reap  the  advantage  of  thy  sufferings.    Lictor,  bind  him,  and 
let  his  death  be  our  future  example."    22.  At  this  unnatural 
mandate  the  whole  army  was  struck  with  horror ;  fear,  for 
a  while,  kept  them  in  suspense ;  but  when  they  saw  their 
young  champion's  head  struck  off,  and  his  blood  streaming 
upon  the  ground,  they  could  no  longer  contain  their  execra- 
tions and  their  groans.     His  dead  body  was  carried  forth 
without  the  camp,  and,  being  adorned  with  the  spoils  of  the 
vanquished  enemy,  was  buried  with  all  the  pomp  of  military 
solemnity. 

23.  In  the  mean  time,  the  battle  began  with  mutual  fury ; 
and  as  the  two  armies  had  often  fought  under  the  same 
leaders,  they  combated  with  all  the  animosity  of  a  civil  war. 
The  Latins  chiefly  depended  on  bodily  strength ;  the  Romans 
on  their  invincible  courage  and  conduct.  24.  Forces  so 
nearly  matched,  seemed  only  to  want  the  aid  of  their  deities 
to  turn  the  scale  of  victory ;  and  in  fact  the  augurs  had  fore- 
told, that  whatever  part  of  the  Roman  army  should  be  dis- 
tressed, the  commander  of  that  part  should  devote  himself 
M 


134  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

for  his  country,  and  die  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  immortal  gods 
Man'lius  commanded  the  right  wing,  and  De'cius  the  left. 
25.  Both  sides  fought  with  doubtful  success,  as  their  courage 
was  equal ;  but,  after  a  time,  the  left  wing  of  the  Roman 
army  began  to  give  ground.  26.  It  was  then  that  De'cius 
resolved  to  devote  himself  for  his  country ;  and  to  offer  his 
own  life,  as  an  atonement,  to  save  his  army. 

27.  Thus  determined,  he  called  out  to  Man'lius  with  a 
loud  voice,  and  demanded  his  instructions,  as  he  was  the 
chief  pontiff,  how  to  devote  himself,  and  what  form  of  words 
he  should  use.  28.  By  his  directions,  therefore,  being 
clothed  in  a  long  robe,  his  head  covered,  and  his  arms 
stretched  forward,  standing  upon  a  javelin,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  celestial  and  infernal  gods,  for  the  safety  of  Rome. 
Then  arming  himself,  and  mounting  his  horse,  he  drove 
furiously  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  striking  terror  and 
consternation  wherever  he  came,  till  he  fell  covered  with 
wounds.  29.  In  the  mean  time  the  Roman  army  considered 
his  devoting  himself  in  this  manner,  as  an  assurance  of  suc- 
cess ;  nor  was  the  superstition  of  the  Latins  less  powerfully 
influenced  by  his  resolution ;  a  total  route  began  to  ensue  : 
the  Romans  pressed  them  on  every  side,  and  so  great  was 
the  carnage,  that  scarcely  a  fourth  part  of  the  enemy  sur- 
vived the  defeat. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Against  whom  did  the  Romans  next  turn  their  arms  ? 

2.  Who  were  appointed  commanders  in  this  war? 

3.  Who  was  Valerius  ? 

4.  What  separate  commands  were  entrusted  to  the  consuls  1 

5.  What  was  the  character  of  Valerius  ! 

6.  What  was  the  character  of  the  hostile  armies  1 

7.  To  whom  did  the  advantage  belong  1 

8.  Was  not  the  division  under  Cornelius  led  into  a  difficulty,  and  how 

was  it  extricated  1 

9.  Wrhat  important  event  next  occurred  ? 

10.  How  were  the  senate  affected  by  fneir  approach  T 

11.  What  are  the  peculiar  evils  attendant  on  civil  wars? 

12.  What  steps  did  Corvus  take  on  this  occasion  ] 

13.  WThat  was  the  consequence  of  this  mildness  1 

14.  What  reflection  may  be  drawn  from  this  incident1? 

15.  What  was  the  next  occurrence  of  note? 

1 G.  What  precautions  were  necessary  in  this  war  ? 

17.  In  what  way  was  the  discipline  of  the  Romans  put  to  the  proof? 

18.  Was  his  challenge  disregarded  ? 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  135 

f9.  Relate  the  particulars  of  the  combat] 

20.  What  reception  did  he  expect  from  his  father? 

21.  What  was  the  consequence  of  his  rashness  ] 

22.  How  was  this  sentence  received  by  the  army  1 

23.  Did  a  battle  ensue  1 

21.   What  was  wanting  to  insure  the  victory  1 

25.  To  whom  did  success  incline  ? 

26.  What  heroic  resolution  did  Decius  make  ? 

27.  In  what  way  did  he  do  this  1 

28.  What  followed  1 

29.  What  effect  had  this  sacrifice  on  the  hostile  armies  1 


SECTION  II. 
u.  c.  431. 

1.  BUT  a  signal  disgrace  which  the  Romans  sustained 
about  this  time,  in  their  contest  with  the  Samnites,  made  a 
pause  in  their  usual  good  fortune,  and  turned  the  scale  for 
a  while  in  the  enemy's  favour.*  2.  The  senate  having  denied 
the  Samnites  peace,  Pon'tius,  their  general,  was  resolved  to 
gain  by  stratagem,  what  he  had  frequently  lost  by  force. 
3.  Accordingly,  leading  his  army  into  the  neighbourhood  of 
a  defile,  called  Cau'dium,  and  taking  possession  of  all  its 
outlets,  he  sent  ten  of  his  soldiers,  habited  like  shepherds, 
with  directions  to  throw  themselves  into  the  way  Avhich  the 
Romans  were  to  march.  4.  Exactly  to  his  wishes,  the 
Roman  consul,  Posthu'mius,  met  them,  and  taking  them  for 
what  they  appeared,  demanded  the  route  the  Samnite  army 
had  taken :  they,  with  seeming  indifference,  replied,  that 

•  An  additional  instance  of  the  severity  with  which  military  discipline 
was  maintained  among  the  Romans,  happened  a  short  time  previous  to 
this :  L.  Papir'ius  Cursor,  the  dictator,  having  occasion  to  quit  the  army 
and  repair  to  Rome,  strictly  forbade  Q.  Fa'bius  Rullia'nus,  his  master  of 
the  horse,  to  venture  a  battle  in  his  absence.  This  order  Fa'bius  dis- 
obeyed, and  gained  a  complete  victory.  Instead,  however,  of  finding 
success  a  palliation  of  his  offence,  he  was  immediately  condemned  by 
the  stern  dictator  to  expiate  his  breach  of  discipline  by  death.  In  spite 
of  the  mutinous  disposition  of  the  army — in  spite  of  the  interces- 
sions and  threats,  both  of  the  senate  and  people,  Papir'ius  persisted  in 
Dilution:  but  what  menaces  and  powerful  interposition  could  not 
obtain,  was  granted  to  the  prayers  and  tears  of  the  criminal's  relatives ; 
and  Fa'bius  lived  to  fill  some  of  the  highest  offices  of  the  state,  uith 
honour  to  himself  and  infinite  advantage  to  his  country.  (Liv.  1.  8.  c. 
30.  35. 


136  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

they  were  going  to  Luce'ria,  a  town  in  Apu'lia,  and  were 
then  actually  besieging  it.  5  The  Roman  general,  not 
suspecting  the  stratagem  that  was  laid  against  him,  inarched 
directly  by  the  shortest  road,  which  lay  through  the  defile, 
to  relieve  that  city ;  and  was  not  undeceived  till  he  saw  his 
army  surrounded,  and  blocked  up  on  every  side.*  6.  Pon'- 
tius,  thus  having  the  Romans  entirely  in  his  power,  first 
obliged  the  army  to  pass  under  the  yoke,  after  having  stript 
them  of  all  but  their  under  garments.  He  then  stipulated, 
that  they  should  wholly  quit  the  territories  of  the  Samnites, 
and  that  they  should  continue  to  live  upon  the  terms  of  their 
former  confederacy.  7.  The  Romans  were  constrained  to 
submit  to  this  ignominious  treaty,  and  marched  into  Cap'ua 
disarmed,  half  naked,  and  burning  with  a  desire  of  retriev- 
ing their  lost  honour.  8.  When  the  army  arrived  at  Rome, 
the  .whole  city  was  most  sensibly  affected  at  their  shameful 
return ;  nothing  but  grief  and  resentment  were  to  be  seen, 
and  the  whole  city  was  put  into  mourning. 

9.  This  was  a  transitory  calamity  ;  the  state  had  suffered 
a  diminution  of  its  glory,  but  not  of  its  power.f  The  war 
was  carried  on  as  usual,  for  many  years ;  the  power  of  the 
Samnites  declining  every  day,  while  that  of  the  Romans 
gained  fresh  vigour  from  every  victory.  10.  Under  the 
conduct  of  Papir'ius  Cursor,  repeated  triumphs  Avere  gained. 
Fa'bius  Max'imus  also  had  his  share  in  the  glory  of  con- 
quering the  Samnites;  and  De'cius,  the  son  of  that  Decius 
whom  we  saw  devoting  himself  for  his  country  about  forty 
years  before,  followed  the  example  of  his  noble  father,  and, 
rushing  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  saved  the  lives  of  his 
countrymen  with  the  loss  of  his  own.J 

11.  The  Samnites  being  driven  to  the  most  extreme  dis- 
tress, and  unable  to  defend  themselves,  were  obliged  to  call 
in  the  assistance  of  a  foreign  power,  and  have  recourse  to 

*  This  gives  but  an  indifferent  idea  of  the  military  skill  of  those 
ages. 

f  It  appears,  however,  to  have  suffered  a  diminution  of  its  honour  on 
this  occasion,  by  breaking  every  article  of  the  treaty  of  peace  extorted 
from  Posthu'mius.  As  some  atonement  for  this  breach  of  faith,  they  de- 
livered Posthu'mius,  and  those  who  signed  the  treaty,  into  the  hands  of 
the  Samnites,  to  do  with  them  as  they  thought  fit ;  but  this  generous 
}«ople  instantly  set  theln  at  liberty.  Liv.  1.  9.  c.  8 — '  1. 

£  U.  C.  447.  About  this  time  Appius  Claudius,  the  censor,  construct- 
ed an  aqueduct,  seven  miles  long,  for  supplying  Rome  with  water,  and 
that  famous  road  from  Rome  to  Capua,  which  still  remains,  the  admira- 
tion of  all  Europe. 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  137 

Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epi'rus,*  to  save  them  from  impending 
ruin.  12.  Pyr'rhus,  a  man  of  great  courage,  ambition,  and 
power,  who  had  always  kept  the  example  of  Alexan'der, 
his  great  predecessor,  before  his  eyes,  promised  to  come  to 
their  assistance  ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  despatched  a  body 
of  three  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of  Cin'eas,  an 
experienced  soldier,  and  a  scholar  of  the  great  orator  De- 
mos'thenes.t  13.  Nor  did  he  himself  remain  long  behind, 
but  soon  after  put  to  sea  with  three  thousand  horse,  twenty 
thousand  foot,  and  twenty  elephants,  in  which  the  com- 
manders of  that  time  began  to  place  very  great  confidence. 
14.  However,  only  a  small  part  of  this  great  armament  ar- 
rived in  Italy  with  him  ;  for  many  of  his  ships  were  dis- 
persed, and  some  were  totally  lost  in  a  storm. 

15.  Upon  his  arrival  at  Taren'tum,J  his  first  care  was  to 
reform  the  people  whom  he  came  to  succour.  Observing  a 
total  dissoluteness  of  manners  in  this  luxurious  city,  and 
that  the  inhabitants  were  rather  occupied  with  the  pleasures 
of  bathing,  feasting,  and  dancing,  than  the  care  of  prepar- 
ing for  war,  he  gave  orders  to  have  all  their  places  of  pub- 
lic entertainment  shut  up,  and  that  they  should  be  restrained 
in  such  amusements  as  rendered  soldiers  unfit  for  battle. 
16.  In  the  mean  time  the  Romans  did  all  which  prudence 
could  suggest,  to  oppose  so  formidable  an  enemy ;  and  the 
consul  Laevi'nus  was  sent  with  a  numerous  force  to  inter- 
rupt his  progress.  17.  Pyr'rhus,  though  his  whole  army 
was  not  yet  arrived,  drew  out  to  meet  him  ;  but  previously 
sent  an  ambassador,  desiring  to  be  permitted  to  mediate  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  people  of  Tarentum.  18.  To 
this  Lrcvi'nus  answered,  that  he  neither  esteemed  him  as  a 
mediator,  nor  feared  him  an  an  enemy:  and  then  leading 
the  ambassador  through  the  Roman  camp,  desired  him  to 
observe  diligently  what  he  saw,  and  to  report  the  result  to 
his  master. 

19.  In  consequence  of  this,  both  armies  approaching, 
pitched  their  tents  in  sight  of  each  other,  upon  the  opposite 
banks  of  the  river  Ly'ris.  Pyr'rhus  was  always  extremely 

*  Epi'rus,  a  country  situated  between  Macedonia,  Achaia,  and  the 
Ionian  sea.  (Strabo.) 

j-  Denios'thones,  famous  for  his  bold  and  nervous  style  of  oratory, 
flourished  at  Athens  about  320  years  before  the  Christian  era, 

t  Taren'tum,  now  Taren'to,  was  a  town  of  Calabria,  in  Italy,  situate 
on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Gale'sus : 
celebrated  for  its  fine  harbour.     (Strabo.) 

M  2 


138  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

careful  in  directing  the  situation  of  his  own  camp,  and  in 
observing  that  of  the  enemy.  20.  Walking  along  the  banks 
of  the  river,  and  surveying  the  Roman  method  of  encamp- 
ing, he  was  heard  to  observe,  that  these  barbarians  seemed 
to  be  no  way  barbarous,  and  that  he  should  too  soon  find 
their  actions  equal  to  their  resolution.  21.  In  the  mean 
time  he  placed  a  body  of  men  in  readiness  to  oppose  the 
Romans,  in  case  they  should  attempt  to  ford  the  stream  be- 
fore his  whole  army  was  brought  together.  22.  Things 
turned  out  according  to  his  expectations  ;  the  consul,  with 
an  impetuosity  that  marked  his  inexperience,  gave  orders 
for  passing  the  river  where  it  was  fordable ;  and  the  ad- 
vanced guard,  having  attempted  to  oppose  him  in  vain.  Avas 
obliged  to  retire  to  the  whole  body  of  the  army.  23.  Pyr'- 
rhus  being  apprised  of  the  enemy's  attempt,  at  first  hoped 
to  cut  off  their  cavalry,  before  they  could  be  reinforced  by 
the  foot,  which  were  not  as  yet  got  over  ;  and  led  on  in 
person  a  chosen  body  of  horse  against  them.  24.  The  Ro- 
man legions  having,  with  much  difficulty,  advanced  across 
the  river,  the  engagement  became  general;  the  Greeks 
fought  with  a  consciousness  of  their  former  fame,  and  the 
Romans  with  a  desire  of  gaining  fresh  glory  :  mankind  had 
seldom  seen  two  such  differently  disciplined  armies  op- 
posed to  each  other  ;  nor  is  it  to  this  day  determined  whether 
the  Greek  phalanx,  or  the  Roman  legion  were  preferable. 
25.  The  combat  was  long  in  suspense ;  the  Romans  had 
seven  times  repulsed  the  enemy,  and  were  as  often  driven 
back  themselves  ;  but  at  length,  while  the  success  seemed 
doubtful,  Pyr'rhus  sent  his  elephants  into  the  midst  of  the 
engagement,  and  these  turned  the  scale  of  victory  in  his  fa- 
vour. 26.  The  Romans,  who  had  never  before  encountered 
creatures  of  such  magnitude,  were  terrified  not  only  at  their 
intrepid  fierceness,  but  at  the  castles  that  were  fastened  on 
their  backs,  filled  M'ith  armed  men.  27.  It  was  then  that 
Pyr'rhus  saw  the  day  was  his  own  ;  and,  sending  his  Thes- 
salian  cavalry  to  charge  the  enemy  in  disorder,  the  route  be- 
came general.  A.  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Romans  ensued, 
fifteen  thousand  men  being  killed  on  the  spot,  and  eighteen 
hundred  taken  prisoners.  28.  Nor  were  the  conquerors  in 
a  much  better  state  than  the  vanquished,  Pyr'rhus  himself 
being  wounded,  and  thirteen  thousand  of  his  forces  slain. 
Night  coming  on,  put  an  end  to  the  slaughter  on  both  sides, 
and  Pyr'rhus  was  heard  to  exclaim,  that  one  such  victory 
more  would  ruin  his  whole  army.  29.  The  next  day,  as 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  139 

he  walked  to  view  the  field  of  battle,  he  could  not  help  re- 
garding with  admiration  the  bodies  of  the  Romans  who  were 
slain.  Upon  seeing  them  all  with  their  wounds  in  front, 
their  countenances,  even  in  death,  marked  with  noble  reso- 
lution, and  a  sternness  that  awed  him  into  vespect,  he  was 
heard  to  cry  out,  in  the  true  spirit  of  a  military  adventurer, 
"  Oh !  with  what  ease  could  I  conquer  the  world,  had  I  the 
Romans  for  soldiers,  or  had  they  me  for  their  king !" 

30.  Pyr'rhus,  after  this  victory,  was  still  unwilling  to 
drive  them  to  an  extremity,  and  considering  that  it  was  best 
to  treat  with  an  humbled  enemy,  he  resolved  to  send  his 
friend  Cin'eas,*  the  orator,  to  negociate  a  peace  ;  of  whom 
he  often  asserted,  that  he  had  won  more  towns  by  the  elo- 
quence of  Cin'eas,  than  by  his  own  arms.  31.  But  Cin'eas, 
with  all  his  art,  found  the  Romans  incapable  of  being  se- 
duced, either  by  private  bribery,  or  public  persuasion  ;  with  a 
haughtiness  little  expected  from  a  vanquished  enemy,  they 
insisted  that  Pyr'rhus  should  evacuate  Italy,  previous  to  a 
commencement  of  a  treaty  of  peace. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Were  the  Romans  uniformly  successful  ? 

2.  Who  resolved  to  use  stratagem,  and  why  1 

3.  By  what  means  did  he  effect  it  1 

4.  What  followed  ? 

5.  Was  the  Roman  general  deceived  by  this  stratagem  ? 

6.  What  advantage  did  the  Samnite  commander  take  of  the  situation 

of  the  Romans ? 

7.  Were  these  terms  accepted  1 

8.  How  was  this  news  received  at  Rome  ? 

9.  Did  this  event  put  an  end  to  the  war  ? 

10.  Who  signalized  themselves  against  the  Samnites? 

1 1.  What  measure  did  the  Samnites  adopt  in  this  extremity  ? 

12.  What  was  the  character  of  Pyrrhus,  and  what  effort  did  he  make 

for  their  relief? 

13.  Did  he  follow  in  person  1 

14.  Did  this  great  force  arrive  in  safety  ? 

15.  What  was  his  first  care  ? 

1(5.  What  measures  did  the  Romans  adopt? 

17.  Did  Pyrrhus  immediately  commence  hostilities? 

1 8.  What  answer  was  returned  ! 

19.  What  followed? 

*  Cin'eas  is  said  to  have  possessed  so  retentive  a  memory,  that  the 
day  after  his  arrival  at  Rome,  he  could  salute  every  senator  and  knight 
Vy  name. 


140  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


I 


20.  What  opinion  did  Pyrrhus  form  of  the  Romans  1 

21.  What  were  his  first  measures] 

22.  Were  his  precautions  justified  ? 

23.  In  what  way  did  Pyrrhus  resist  this  attack] 

24.  What  is  worthy  of  observation  in  this  engagement] 

25.  To  whom  did  the  victory  fall] 

26.  On  what  account  were  the  Romans  terrified  by  the  appearance  of 

the  elephants] 

27.  What  completed  the  route  t 

28.  Was  this  victory  cheaply  purchased  ? 

29.  What  were  the  sensations  of  Pyrrhus  on  viewing  the   field  of 

battle  ] 

80.  What  measures  did  he  adopt  after  this  victory  ] 
31.  Were  the  arts  of  Cineas  successful  ] 


SECTION  III. 

1.  BEING  frustrated,  therefore,  in  his  expectations,  Cin'eas 
returned  to  his  master,  extolling  both  the  virtues  and  th« 
grandeur  of  the  Romans.  The  senate,  he  said,  appeared  a 
reverend  assembly  of  demi-gods  ;  and  the  city,  a  temple  for 
their  reception.  2.  Of  this  Pyr'rhus  soon  after  became 
sensible,  by  an  embassy  from  Rome,  concerning  the  ransom 
and  exchange  of  prisoners.  3.  At  the  head  of  this  venera- 
ble deputation  was  Fabri'cius,  an  ancient  senator,  who  had 
long  been  a  pattern  to  his  countrymen  of  the  most  extreme 
poverty,  joined  to  the  most  cheerful  content.  4.  Pyr'rhus 
received  this  celebrated  old  man  with  great  kindness  ;  and 
willing  to  try  how  far  fame  had  been  just  in  his  favour,  of- 
fered him  rich  presents  ;  but  the  Roman  refused.  5.  The 
day  after,  he  was  desirous  of  examining  the  equality  of  his 
temper,  and  ordered  one  of  his  largest  elephants  to  be  placed 
behind  the  tapestry,  which,  upon  a  signal  given,  being  drawn 
aside,  the  huge  animal  raised  its  trunk  above  the  ambassa- 
dor's head,  making  a  hideous  noise,  and  using  other  arts  to 
intimidate  him.  6.  But  Fabri'cius,  with  an  unchanged 
countenance,  smiled  upon  the  king,  and  told  him,  that  he 
looked  with  an  equal  eye  on  the  terrors  of  that  day,  as  he 
had  upon  the  allurements  of  the  preceding.  7.  Pyr'rhus, 
pleased  to  find  so  much  virtue  in  one  he  had  considered  as 
a  barbarian,  was  willing  to  grant  him  the  only  favour  which 
he  knew  could  make  him  happy ;  he  released  the  Roman 
prisoners,  entrusting  them  to  Fabri'cius  alone,  upon  his  pro 
inise,  that,  in  case  the  senate  were  determined  to  continue 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  141 

the  war,  he  might  reclaim  them  whenever  he  thought  pro- 
per. 

8.  By  this  time  the  Roman  army  was  recovered  from  its 
late  defeat,  and  Sulpi'cius  and  De'cius,  the  consuls  Cu.  c. 
for  the  following  year,  were  placed  at  its  head.  9.  £  474. 
The  panic  which  had  formerly  seized  it  from  the  elephants, 
now  began  to  wear  off,  and  both  armies  met  near  the  city 
of  As'culum,  pretty  nearly  equal  in  numbers.  10.  Here 
again,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  fighathe  Grecian  discipline 
prevailed.  The  Romans,  pressed  oirrvery  side,  particular- 
ly by  the  elephants,  were  obliged  to  retire  to  their  camp, 
leaving  six  thousand  men  upon  the  field  of  battle.  11.  But 
the  enemy  had  no  great  reason  to  boast  of  their  triumph,  as 
they  had  four  thousand  slain.  Pyr'rhus  again  observed,  to  a 
soldier  who  was  congratulating  him  upon  his  victory,  "  An- 
other such  a  triumph,  and  I  shall  be  undone."  This  battle 
finished  the  campaign.  12.  The  next  season  began  with 
equal  vigour  on  both  sides  ;  Pyr'rhus  having  received  new 
succours  from  home.  13.  While  the  two  armies  were  ap- 
proaching, and  yet  but  a  small  distance  from  each  other,  a 
letter  was  brought  to  old  Fabri'cius,  the  Roman  general, 
from  the  king's  physician,  importing  that,  for  a  proper  re- 
ward, he  would  take  him  off  by  poison,  and  thus  rid  the 
Romans  of  a  powerful  enemy,  and  a  dangerous  war.  14. 
Fabri'cius  felt  all  the  honest  indignation  at  this  base  propo- 
sal that  was  consistent  with  his  former  character ;  he  com- 
municated it  to  his  colleague,  and  instantly  gave  it  as  his 
opinion,  that  Pyr'rhus  should  be  informed  of  the  treachery 
that  was  plotted  against  him.  15.  Accordingly,  letters  were 
despatched  for  that  purpose,  informing  Pyr'rhus  of  the  af- 
fair, and  alleging  his  unfortunate  choice  of  friends  and  ene- 
mies ;  that  he  had  trusted  and  promoted  murderers,  while 
he  directed  his  resentment  against  the  generous  and  brave. 
16.  Pyr'rhus  now  began  to  find  that  these  bold  barbarians 
were,  by  degrees,  schooled  into  refinement,  and  would  not 
suffer  him  to  be  their  superior,  even  in  generosity.  He  re- 
ceived the  message  with  as  much  amazement  at  their  can- 
dour, as  indjgnation  at  his  physician's  treachery.  ««  Admira- 
ble Fabri'ciqs  !"  cried  he,  "  it  would  be  as  easy  to  turn  the 
sun  from  its  course,  as  thee  from  the  path  of  honour."  17. 
Then,  making  the  proper  inquiry  among  his  servants,  and 
having  discovered  the  treason,  he  ordered  his  physician  to 
be  executed.  18.  Not  to  be  outdone  in  magnanimity,  he 
immediately  sent  to  Rome  all  his  prisoners  without  ransom, 


142  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

and  again  desired  to  negociate  a  peace  :  but  the  Romans 
still  refused,  upon  any  other  conditions  than  had  been  offer- 
ed before. 

19.  After  an  interval  of  two  years,  Pyr'rhus,  having  in- 
creased his  army  by  new  levies,  sent  one  part  of  it  to  op- 
pose the  march  of  Len'tulus,  while  he,  with  the  other,  went 
to  attack  Cu'rius  Denta'tus,  before  his  colleague  could  come 
up.  20.  His  principal  aim  was  to  surprise  the  enemy  by 
night ;  but  unfortunately,  passing  through  woods,  and  the 
light  failing  him,  his  men  lost  their  way ;  so  that  at  the  ap- 
proach of  morning,  he  saw  himself  in  sight  of  the  Roman 
camp,  with  the  enemy  drawn  out  ready  to  receive  him.  The 
vanguard  of  both  armies  soon  met,  in  which  the  Romans 
had  the  advantage.  21.  Soon  after,  a  general  engagement 
ensuing,  Pyr'rhus,  finding  the  balance  of  the  victory  turning 
still  against  him,  had  once  more  recourse  to  his  elephants. 
22.  These,  however,  the  Romans  were  now  too  well  ac- 
quainted with,  to  feel  any  vain  terrors  from;  and  having 
found  that  fire  was  the  most  effectual  means  to  repel  them, 
they  caused  a  number  of  balls  to  be  made,  composed  of  flax 
and  rosin,  which  were  lighted  and  thrown  against  them  as 
they  approached  the  ranks.  23.  The  elephants,  rendered 
furious  by  the  flame,  and  boldly  opposed  by  the  soldiers, 
could  no  longer  be  brought  on  ;  but  ran  back  on  their  own 
army,  bearing  down  their  ranks,  and  filling  all  places  with 
terror  and  confusion :  thus  victory,  at  length,  declared  in 
favour  of  Rome.  24.  Pyr'rhus,  in  vain,  attempted  to  stop 
the  flight  and  slaughter  of  his  troops ;  he  lost  not  only 
twenty-three  thousand  of  his  best  soldiers,  but  his  camp 
was  also  taken.  25.  This  served  as  a  new  lesson  to  the 
Romans,  who  were  ever  open  to  improvement.  They  had 
formerly  pitched  their  tents  without  order  ;  but,  by  this  new 
capture,  they  were  taught  to  measure  out  their  ground,  and 
fortify  the  whole  with  a  trench ;  so  that  many  of  their  suc- 
ceeding victories  are  to  be  ascribed  to  their  improved 
method  of  encamping. 

26.  Pyr'rhus,  thus  finding  all  hopes  fruitless,  resolved  to 
leave  Italy,  where  he  found  only  desperate  enemies,  and 
faithless  allies ;  accordingly,  calling  together  the  Taren'- 
tines,  he  informed  them  that  he  had  received  assurances 
from  Greece  of  speedy  assistance,  and  desiring  them  to 
await  the  event  with  tranquillity,  the  night  following  he  em- 
barked his  troops,  and  returned,  undisturbed,  into  his  native 
kingdom,  with  the  remains  of  his  shattered  forces,  leaving 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  143 

a  garrison  in  Taren'tum  merely  to  save  appearances  :  and  in 
this  manner  ended  the  war  with  Pyr'rhus,  after  six  years' 
continuance. 

27.  As  for  the  poor  luxurious  Taren'tines,  who  were  the 
original  promoters  of  the  war,  they  soon  began  to  find  a 
worse  enemy  in  the  garrison  that  was  left  for  their  defence, 
than  in  the  Romans  who  attacked  them  from  without.  The 
hatred  between  them  and  Mi'lo,  who  commanded  their  cita- 
del for  Pyr'rhus,  was  become  so  great,  that  nothing  but  the 
fear  of  their  old  inveterate  enemies,  the  Romans,  could  equal 
it.  28.  In  this  distress  they  applied  to  the  Carthaginians, 
who,  with  a  large  fleet,  came  and  blocked  up  the  port  of 
Taren'tum ;  so  that  this  unfortunate  people,  once  famous 
through  Italy  for  their  refinements  and  pleasures,  now  saw 
themselves  contended  for  by  three  different  armies,  without 
a  choice  of  a  conqueror.  29.  At  length,  however,  the  Ro- 
mans found  means  to  bring  over  the  garrison  to  their  inter- 
est ;  after  which  they  easily  became  masters  of  the  city,  and 
demolished  its  walls,  granting  the  inhabitants  liberty  and 
protection. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  report  did  Cineas  give  of  the  Romans  7 

2.  By  what  means  did  Pyrrhus  become  convinced  of  its  truth  7 

3.  Who  headed  this  deputation  1 

4.  What  reception  did  he  experience  7 

5.  W  hat  farther  trial  was  made  of  his  disposition  7 

6.  What  effect  did  this  produce  in  Fabricius  7 

7.  In  what  way  did  Pyrrhus  evince  his  satisfaction  7 

8.  In  what  state  was  the  Roman  army  at  this  time  7 

9.  Where  did  the  rival  armies  meet  7 

10.  What  was  the  event  of  the  engagement  7 

11.  Did  it  cost  the  enemy  dear? 

12.  Was  the  war  continued  7 

13.  What  proposal  was  made  to  Fabricius  7 

14.  How  was  this  proposal  received  7 

15.  How  was  this  done  7 

16.  What  effect  had  this  conduct  on  Pyrrhus  7 

17.  What  followed  7 

18.  What  return  did  he  make  to  the  Romans  7 

19.  How  was  this  war  carried  on  7 

20.  What  views  had  he  in  this,  and  how  did  they  succeed  7 

21.  What  expedient  did  Pyrrhus  have  recourse  to,  to  insure  the  victory  ! 

22.  How  did  the  Romans  endeavour  to  counteract  ifl 

23.  What  was  the  consequence  7 

24.  What  loss  did  Pyrrhus  sustain  7 


144  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

25.  What  advantage  did  the  Romans  gain  from  this  victory  1 

26.  What  resolution  did  Pyrrhus  form,  and  how  did  he  effect  it  7 

27.  What  became  of  the  Tarentines  ? 

28.  To  whom  did  they  have  recourse  ? 

29.  How  did  this  terminate  1 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  FIRST  PUNIC  WAR,  TO  THE 
BEGINNING  OF  THE  SECOND,  WHEN  THE  ROMANS  BEGAN  TO 
GROAV  POWERFUL  BY  SEA. U.  C.  493. 

-- 

1.  THE  Romans  having  destroyed  all  rival  pretensions  at 
home,  began  to  pant  after  foreign  conquests.  2.  The  Car- 
thagin'ians  were  at  that  time  in  possession  of  the  greatest 
part  of  Sicily,  and,  like  the  Romans,  only  wanted  an  op- 
portunity of  embroiling  the  natives,  in  order  to  become  mas- 
ters of  the  whole  island.  3.  This  opportunity  at  length  of- 
fered. Hi'ero,  king  of  Sy'racuse,  one  of  the  states  of  that 
island,  which  was  as  yet  unconquered,  entreated  their  aid 
against  the  Mam'ertines,  an  insignificant  people  of  the  same 
country,  and  they  sent  him  supplies  both  by  sea  and  land. 

4.  The  Mam'ertines,  on  the  other  hand,  to  shield  off  im- 
pending ruin,  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Rome. 

5.  The  Romans,  not  thinking  the  Mam'ertines  worthy  of  the 
name  of  allies,  instead  of  professing  to  assist  them,  boldly 
declared  war  against  Carthage ;    alleging  as  a  reason,  the 
assistance  which  Carthage  had  lately  sent  to  the  southern 
parts  of  Italy  against  the  Romans.     In  this  manner  a  war 
was  declared  between  two  powerful  states,  both  too  great  to 
continue  patient  spectators  of  each  other's  increase. 

6.  Carthage,  a  colony  of  the  Phoenicians,  was  built  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  place  where  Tunis  now  stands, 
about  a  hundred  and  thirty-seven  years  before  the  foundation 
of  Rome.  7.  As  it  had  been  long  growing  into  power,  so 
it  had  extended  its  dominions  all  along  the  coasts :  but  its 
chief  strength  lay  in  its  fleets  and  commerce.  8.  Thus  cir- 
cumstanced, these  two  great  powers  began  what  is  called 
the  First  Punic  war.  The  Carthagin'ians  were  possessed 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  145 

of  gold  and  silver,  which  might  be  exhausted  ;  the  Romans 
were  famous  for  perseverance,  patriotism,  and  poverty, 
which  gathered  strength  by  every  defeat. 

9.  But  there  seemed  to  be  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to 
the  ambitious  views  of  Rome,  as  they  had  no  fleet,  or  at 
least  none  that  deserved  the  title  ;  while  the  Carthagin'ians 
had  the  entire  command  at  sea,  and  kept  all  the  maritime 
towns  in  obedience.*  10.  In  such  a  situation,  under  disad- 
vantages which  nature  seemed  to  have  imposed,  any  people 
but  the  Romans  would, have  rested ;  but  nothing  could  con- 
quer or  intimidate  them.  11.  A  Carthagin'ian  vessel  hap- 
pened to  be  driven  on  shore,  in  a  storm,  and  this  was  suf- 
ficient to  serve  as  a  model.  They  began  to  apply  them- 
selves to  maritime  affairs  ;  and  though  without  shipwrights 
to  build,  or  seamen  to  navigate  a  fleet,  they  resolved  to  sur- 
mount every  obstacle  with  inflexible  perseverance.  12.  The 
consul  Duil'ius  was  the  first  who  ventured  to  sea  with  his 
new-constructed  armament ;  and,  though  far  inferior  to  the 
enemy  in  the  management  of  his  fleet,  yet  he  gained  the  first 
naval  victory  ;  the  Carthagin'ians  losing  fifty  of  their  ships, 
and  the  undisturbed  sovereignty  of  the  sea,  which  they 
valued  more.t 

13.  But  the  conquest  of  Sicily  was  to  be  obtained  only 
by  humbling  the  power  of  Carthage  at  home.  JFor  this  rea- 
son the  senate  resolved  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa  itself, 
and  accordingly  they  sent  Reg'ulus  and  Man'lius,  with  a 
fleet  of  three  hundred  sail,  to  make  the  invasion.  14.  Reg'- 
ulus was  reckoned  the  most  consummate  warrior  that  Rome 
could  then  produce,  and  a  professed  example  of  frugal  se- 

•  The  vessels  in  which  they  had  hitherto  transported  their 
were  principally  hired  from  their  neighbours  the  Locrians,  Taret 
&c.     It  is  certain  that  the  Romans  had  ships  of  war  before  this 
but  from  the  little  attention  they  had  hitherto  paid  to  naval  affairs,  they 
were,  probably,  badly  constructed  and  ill  managed. 

•j-  While  the  heroic  conduct  of  Leon'idas  and  his  little  band  of  Spar- 
tans has  met  with  deserved  applause  in  all  ages,  a  similar  devotedncss 
for  his  country  in  Calpur'nius  Flem'ma,  a  military  tribune,  has  been 
scarcely  noticed ;  the  Consul  Calatinus  having  carelessly  suffered  him- 
self to  be  entrapped  by  the  Carthagin'ians  in  a  place  from  whence  there 
was  no  hope  of  being  extricated,  Calpur'nius,  with  300  resolute  men, 
possessed  himself  of  a  neighbouring  eminence,  and  with  incredible 
courage  so  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Carthagin'ians,  that  the  Roman 
army  escaped  with  very  little  opposition.  This  band  of  heroes  wan 
slaughtered  to  a  man,  and  Calpur'nius  himself  fell,  dreadfully  wounded, 
but  afterwards  recovered  of  his  wounds.  He  was  rewarded  with  a  corona 
frraminU,  or  crown  made  of  grass. 

N 


146  HISTORY   OF   ROME. 

verity.  His  patriotism  was  still  greater  than  his  temper- 
ance :  all  private  passions  seemed  extinguished  in  him ;  at 
least  they  were  swallowed  up  in  one  great  ruling  affection, 
the  love  of  his  country.  15.  The  two  general*  set  sail 
with  their  fleet,  which  was  the  greatest  that  had  ever  yet 
left  an  Italian  port,  carrying  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
men.  They  were  met  by  the  Carthagin'ians  with  a  fleet 
equally  powerful,  and  men  more  used  to  the  sea.  1 6.  While 
the  fight  continued  at  a  distance,  the  Carthagin'ians  seemed 
successful ;  but  when  the  Romans  came  to  grapple  with 
them,  the  difference  between  a  mercenary  army  and  one 
that  fought  for  fame,  was  apparent.  17.  The  resolution  of 
the  Romans  was  crowned  with  success ;  the  enemy's  fleet 
was  dispersed,  and  fifty-four  of  their  vessels  taken.  18.  The 
consequence  of  this  victory  was  an  immediate  descent  upon 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  capture  of  the  city  Clu'pea,  to- 
gether with  twenty  thousand  men  who  were  made  prisoners 
of  war. 

19.  The  senate  being  informed  of  these  great  successes, 
and  applied  to  for  fresh  instructions,  commanded  Man'lius 
back  to  Italy,  in  order  to  superintend  the  Sicilian  war,  and 
directed  that  Reg'ulus  should  continue  in  Africa  to  prose- 
cute his  victories  there. 

20.  A  battle  ensued,  in  which  Carthage  was  once  more 
defeated,  and  17,000  of  its  best  troops  were  cut  off.     This 
fresh  victory  contributed  to  throw  them  into  the  utmost  de- 
spair ;  for  more  than  eighty  of  their  towns  submitted  to  the 
Romans.     21.  In  this  distress,  the  Carthagin'ians,  destitute 
of  generals  at  home,  were  obliged  to  send  to  Lacedae'mon, 
olFering  the  command  of  their  armies  to  Xantip'pus,  a  gen&- 
ral  of  great  experience,  who  undertook  to  conduct  them. 

22.  This  general  began  by  giving  the  magistrates  proper 
instructions  for  levying  their  men ;  he  assured  them  that 
their  armies  were»hitherto  overthrown,  not  by  the  strength 
of  the  enemy,  but  by  the  ignorance  of  their  own  command- 
ers ;  he,  therefore,  required  a  ready  obedience  to  his  orders, 
and  assured  them  of  an  easy  victory.  23.  The  whole  city 
seemed  once  more  revived  from  despondence  by  the  ex- 
hortations of  a  single  stranger,  and  soon  from  hope  grew  in- 
to confidence.  24.  This  was  the  spirit  the  Grecian  gene 
ral  wished  to  excite  in  them ;  so  that  when  he  saw  them 
thus  ripe  for  the  engagement,  he  joyfully  took  the  field. 
25  The  Lacedaemo'nian  made  the  most  skilful  disposition 
of  his  forces ;  he  placed  his  cavalry  in  the  wings  ;  he  dis- 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  147 

posed  the  elephants  at  proper  intervals,  behind  the  line  of 
the  heavy-armed  infantry,  and  bringing  up  the  light-armed 
troops  before,  he  ordered  them  to  retire  through  the  line  of 
infantry,  after  they  had  discharged  their  weapons.  26.  At 
length  both  armies  engaged ;  after  a  long  and  obstinate  re- 
sistance, the  Romans  were  overthrown  with  dreadful  slaugh- 
ter, the  greatest  part  of  their  army  destroyed,  and  Reg'ulus 
himself  taken  prisoner.  27.  Several  other  distresses  of  the 
Romans  followed  soon  after.  They  lost  their  fleet  in  a 
storm,  and  Agrigen'tum  their  principal  town  in  Sicily,  was 
taken  by  Karth'alo,  the  Carthagin'ian  general.  They  built 
a  new  fleet,  which  shared  the  fate  of  the  former ;  for  the 
mariners,  as  yet  unacquainted  with  the  Mediterra'nean 
shores,  drove  upon  quicksands,  and  soon  after  the  greater 
part  perished  in  a  storm.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  did  the  Romans  now  desire  1 

2.  What  state  afforded  them  an  opportunity  for  this  purpose  1 

3.  Were  their  wishes  gratified,  and  how  1 

4.  What  measures  did  the  Mamertines  adopt  ? 

6.  Did  the  Romans  afford  them  the  assistance  they  requested  1 

6.  Where  was  Carthage  situated,  and  when  was  it  builtl 

7.  Was  it  a  powerful  state  7 

8.  Hat!  the  Romans  or  the  Carthaginians  the  means  most  likely  to  in 

sure  success  1 

9.  Were  Rome  and  Carthage  on  an  equal  footing  in  other  respects  ? 

10.  Did  the  Romans  attempt  to  overcome  this  obstacle  * 

1 1.  What  assisted  their  endeavours  1 

12.  Who  was  their  first  naval  commander,  and  what  was  his  success 

13.  What  were  the  means  adopted  to  conquer  Sicily  1 

14.  What  was  the  character  of  Regulus  ? 

15.  What  was  the  amount  of  the  force  on  both  sides! 

16.  On  what  side  did  the  advantage  lie  1 

1 7.  With  whom  did  the  victory  remain  1 

18.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  victory  * 

19.  What  were  the  orders  of  the  senate  1 

20.  What  was  the  next  event  deserving  notice,  and  its  consequences ! 

21.  To  what  expedient  were  the  Carthaginians  obliged  to  have  recourse  1 

22.  What  were  the  first  acts  of  this  general  ? 

23.  What  were  the  effects  his  arrival  produced  7 

*  The  Romans  considering  these  two  disasters  as  indfcations  of  the 
will  of  the  gods  that  they  should  not  contend  by  sea,  made  a  decree  that 
ro  more  than  fifty  galleys  should,  for  the  future,  be  equipped.  This  de 
cree,  however,  did  not  continue  long  in  force. 


148  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

24.  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

25.  In  what  way  was  the  Carthaginian  army  drawn  up  ? 

26.  What  was  the  event  of  the  battle  ? 

27.  What  other  disasters  did  the  Romans  encounter  ? 


SECTION  n. 

1.  THE  Carthagin'ians  being  thus  successful,  were  de- 
sirous of  a  new  treaty  for  peace,  hoping  to  have  better  terms 
than  those  insisted  upon  by  Reg'ulus.  They  supposed  that 
he,  whom  they  had  now  for  four  years  kept  in  a  dungeon, 
confined  and  chained,  would  be  a  proper  solicitor.  It  was 
expected  that,  being  wearied  with  imprisonment  and  bond- 
age, he  would  gladly  endeavour  to  persuade  his  countrymen 
to  a  discontinuance  of  the  war  which  prolonged  his  captivity. 
2.  He  was  accordingly  sent  with  their  ambassadors  to  Rome, 
under  a  promise,  previously  exacted  from  him,  to  return  in 
case  of  being  unsuccessful.  He  was  even  given  to  under- 
stand that  his  life  depended  upon  the  success  of  his  ne- 
gociation. 

3.  When  this  old  general,  together  with  the  ambassadors 
of  Carthage,  approached  Rome,  numbers  of  his  friends 
came  out  to  meet  him,  and  congratulate  him  on  his  return. 
4.  Their  acclamations  resounded  through  the  city  ;  but 
Reg'ulus  refused,  with  settled  melancholy,  to  enter  the 
gates.  In  vain  he  was  entreated  on  every  side  to  visit  once 
more  his  little  dwelling,  and  share  in  that  joy  which  his  re- 
turn had  inspired.  He  persisted  in  saying  that  he  was  now 
a  slave  belonging  to  the  Carthagin'ians,  and  unfit  to  partake 
in  the  liberal  honours  of  his  country.  5.  The  senate 
assembling  without  the  walls,  as  usual,  to  give  audience  to 
the  ambassadors,  Reg'ulus  opened  his  commission  as  he  had 
been  directed  by  the  Carthagin'ian  council,  and  their  am- 
bassadors seconded  his  proposals.  6.  The  senate  them- 
selves, who  were  weary  of  a  war  which  had  been  protracted 
above  fourteen  years,  were  no  way  disinclinable  to  a  peace. 
It  only  remained  for  Reg'ulus  himself  to  give  his  opinion. 
7.  When  it  came  to  his  turn  to  speak,  to  the  surprise  of  the 
whole,  he  gave  his  voice  for  continuing  the  war.  8.  So 
unexpected  an  advice  not  a  little  disturbed  the  senate :  they 
pitied  as  well  as  admired  a  man  who  had  used  such  elo- 
quence against  his  private  interest,  and  could  conclude  upon 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  149 

a  measure  which  was  to  terminate  in  his  own  ruin.  9.  But 
he  soon  relieved  their  embarrassment  by  breaking  off  the 
treaty,  and  by  rising,  in  order  to  return  to  his  bonds  and  his 
confinement.  10.  In  vain  did  the  senate  and  his  dearest 
friends  entreat  his  stay;  he  still  repressed  their  solicitations. 
Marcia,  his  wife,  with  her  children,  vainly  entreated  to  be 
permitted  to  see  him  :  he  still  obstinately  persisted  in  keep- 
ing his  promise ;  and  though  sufficiently  apprised  of  the 
tortures  that  awaited  his  return,  without  embracing  his 
family,  or  taking  leave  of  his  friends,  he  departed  with  the 
ambassadors  for  Carthage. 

11.  Nothing  could  equal  the  fury  and  the  disappointment 
of  the  Carthagin'ians,  when  they  were  informed  by  their 
ambassadors  that  Regulus,  instead  of  hastening  a  peace,  had 
given  his  opinion  for  continuing  the  war.  12.  They  ac- 
cordingly prepared  to  punish  his  conduct  with  the  most 
studied  tortures.  His  eye-lids  were  cut  off,  and  he  was  re- 
manded to  prison.  After  some  days,  he  was  again  brought 
out  from  his  dark  and  dismal  dungeon,  and  exposed  with 
his  face  opposite  the  burning  sun.  At  last,  when  malice 
was  fatigued  studying  all  the  arts  of  torture,  he  was  put  into 
a  sort  of  barrel,  stuck  full  of  spikes,  and  in  this  painful 
position  he  continued  till  he  died. 

13.  Both  sides  now  took  up  arms  with  more  than  former 
animosity.  At  length,  Roman  perseverance  was  crowned 
with  success ;  and  one  victory  followed  on  the  back  of 
another.  Fa'bius  Bu'teo,  the  consul,  once  more  showed 
them  the  way  to  naval  victory,  by  defeating  a  large  squadron 
of  the  enemy's  ships ;  but  Luta'tius  Cat'ulus  gained  a  vic- 
tory still  more  complete,  in  which  the  power  of  Carthage 
seemed  totally  destroyed  at  sea,  by  the  loss  of  a  hundred 
and  twenty  ships.  14.  This  loss  compelled  the  Cartha- 
gin'ians again  to  sue  for  peace,  which  Rome  thought  proper 
to  grant ;  but  still  inflexible  in  its  demands,  exacted  the 
same  conditions  which  Reg'ulus  had  formerly  offered  at  the 
gates  of  Carthage.  15.  These  were,  that  they  should  lay 
down  a  thousand  talents  of  silver,  to  defray  the  charge  of 
the  war,  and  should  pay  two  thousand  two  hundred  more 
within  ten  years;  that  they  should  quit  Sicily,  with  all 
such  islands  as  they  possessed  near  it ;  that  they  should 
never  make  war  against  the  allies  of  Rome,  nor  come  with 
any  vessels  of  war  within  the  Roman  dominions  ;  and  lastly, 
that  all  their  prisoners  and  deserters  should  be  de-  C  *'•  c« 
livered  up  without  ransom.  16.  To  these  hard  £513. 

N  2 


1 50  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

conditions,  the  Carthagin'ians,  now  exhausted,  readily  sub- 
scribed ;  and  thus  ended  the  first  Punic  war,  which  had 
lasted  twenty-four  years  ;  and,  in  some  measure,  had  drained 
both  nations  of  their  resources. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  were  the  Carthaginians  now  desirous  of  obtaining  ? 

2.  Was  Regulus  employed  for  this  purpose  t 

3.  How  was  Regulus  received  by  the  Romans  ? 

4.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Regulus  on  this  occasion  T 

5.  How  did  the  negociation  commence  ? 

6.  Were  the  Romans  inclined  for  peace  ? 

7.  What  was  the  opinion  of  Regulus  ] 

8.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  advice  7 

9.  H«w  did  Regulus  put  an  end  to  their  embarrassment  1 

10.  Could  he  not  be  prevailed  on  to  remain  at  Rome? 

1 1.  How  did  the  Carthaginians  receive  an  account  of  his  conduct  1 

12.  In  what  way  did  they  punish  him  7 

1 3.  With  what  success  wis  the  war  continued 7 

14.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  loss  ? 

15.  What  were  these  terms] 

16.  Were  they  agreed  to] 

What  was  the  duration  of  the  first  Punic  war  1 


CHAPTER  XV. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM    THE    END    OF    THE    FIRST    PUNIC   WAR   TO    THE    END    OF 
THE    SECOND. 

1.  THE  war  being  ended  between  the  Carthagin'ians  and 
Romans,  a  profound  peace  ensued,  and  in  about  six  years 
after,  the  temple  of  Ja'nus  was  shut  for  the  second  time 
since  the  foundation  of  the  city.*  2.  The  Romans  being 
thus  in  friendship  with  all  nations,  had  an  opportunity  of 
turning  to  the  arts  of  peace ;  they  now  began  to  have  a 
relish  for  poetry,  the  first  liberal  art  which  rises  in  every 
civilized  nation,  and  the  first  also  that  decays.  3.  Hitherto 
they  had  been  entertained  only  with  the  rude  drolleries  of 

*  The  first  was  iu  the  reign  of  Numa. 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  151 

their  lowest  buffoons,  who  entertained  them  with  sports 
called  Fescen'nine,  in  which  a  few  debauched  actors  in- 
vented their  own  parts,  while  raillery  and  indecency  sup- 
plied the  place  of  humour.  4.  To  these  a  composition  of 
a  higher  kind  succeeded,  called  satire  ;  a  sort  of  dramatic 
poem,  in  which  the  characters  of  the  great  were  particularly 
pointed  out,  and  made  an  object  of  derision  to  the  vulgar. 

5.  After  these,  came  tragedy  and  comedy,  which  were  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greeks:  indeed,  the  first  dramatic    Cu.  c. 
poet  of  Rome,  whose  name  was  Liv'ius  Andronicus,    £  514. 
was  a  native  of  one  of  the  Greek  colonies  in  southern  Italy. 

6.  The  instant  these  finer  kinds  of  composition  appeared, 
this  great  people  rejected  their  former  impurities  with  dis- 
dain.    From  thenceforward  they  laboured  upon  the  Grecian 
model ;  and  though  they  were  never  able  to  rival  their  mas- 
ters in  dramatic  composition,  they  soon  surpassed  them  in 
many  of  the  more  soothing  kinds  of  poetry.     Elegiac,  pas- 
toral, and  didactic  compositions  began  to  assume  new  beau- 
ties in  the  Roman  language  ;  and  satire,  not  that  rude  kind 
of  dialogue  already  mentioned,  but  a  nobler  sort,- was  all 
their  own. 

7.  While  they  were  thus  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace, 
they  were  not  unmindful  of  making  fresh  preparations  for 
war ;  intervals  of  ease  seemed  to  give  fresh  vigour  for  new 
designs,  rather  than  relax  their  former  intrepidity.  8.  The 
Illyr'ians  were  the  first  people  upon  whom  they  tried  their 
strength.  That  nation  happened  to  make  depredations  upon 
some  of  the  trading  subjects  of  Rome,  which  being  CTJ.  c- 
complained  of  to  Teuta,  the  queen  of  the  country,  £  527. 
she,  instead  of  granting  redress,  ordered  the  ambassadors, 
who  were  sent  to  demand  restitution,  to  be  murdered.  9.  A 
war  ensued,  in  which  the  Romans  were  victorious  ;  most  of 
the  Illy'ric  towns  were  surrendered  to  the  consuls,  and  a 
peace  at  last  concluded,  by  which  the  greatest  part  of  the 
country  was  ceded  to  Rome ;  a  yearly  tribute  was  exacted 
for  the  rest,  and  a  prohibition  added,  that  the  Illyr'ians 
should  not  sail  beyond  the  river  Lissus  with  more  than  two 
barks,  and  those  unarmed. 

10.  The  Gauls  were  the  next  people  that  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  Romans.  11.  A  time  of  peace*  when 
the  armies  were  disbanded,  was  the  proper  season  for  new 
irruptions  ;  accordingly,  these  barbarians  invited  fresh  forces 
from  beyond  the  Alps,  and  entering  Etru'ria,  wasted  all  with 
fire  and  sword,  till  they  came  within  about  three  days'  journey 


152  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

of  Rome.  12.  A  praetor  and  a  consul  were  sent  to  oppose 
them,  who,  now  instructed  in  the  improved  arts  of  war, 
were  enabled  to  surround  the  Gauls.  13.  It  was  in  vain 
that  those  hardy  troops,  who  had  nothing  but  courage  to 
protect  them,  formed  two  fronts  to  oppose  their  adversaries ; 
their  naked  bodies  and  undisciplined  forces  were  unable  to 
withstand  the  shock  vof  an  enemy  completely  armed,  and 
skilled  in  military  evolutions.  14.  A  miserable  slaughter 
ensued,  in  which  forty  thousand  were  killed,  and  ten  thou- 
sand taken  prisoners.  15.  This  victory  was  followed  by 
another,  gained  by  MarceHus,  in  which  he  killed  Virido- 
ina'rus,  their  king,  with  his  own  hand.  16.  These  con- 
quests forced  them  to  beg  for  peace,  the  conditions  of  which 
served  greatly  to  enlarge  the  empire.  Thus  the  Romans 
went  on  with  success ;  retrieved  their  former  losses,  and 
only  wanted  an  enemy  worthy  of  their  arms  to  begin  a 
new  war. 

17.  The  Carthagin'ians  had  made  peace  solely  because 
they  were  no  longer  able  to  continue  the  war.  They,  there- 
fore, took  the  earliest  opportunity  of  breaking  the  treaty, 
and  besieged  Sagun'tum,  a  city  of  Spain,  which  had  been 
in  alliance  with  Rome ;  and,  though  desired  to  desist,  pro- 
secuted their '  operations  with  vigour.  18.  Ambassadors 
were  sent,  in  consequence,  from  Rome  to  Carthage,  com- 
plaining of  the  infraction  of  their  articles,  and  required  that 
Han'nibal,  the  Carthagin'ian  general,  who  had  advised  this 
measure,  should  be  delivered  up  :  which  being  refused,  both 
sides  prepared  for  a  second  Punic  war. 

19.  The  Carthaginians  trusted  the  management  of  it  to 
Han'nibal.  20.  This  extraordinary  man  had  been  made 
the  sworn  foe  of  Rome,  almost  from  his  infancy  ;  for,  while 
yet  very  young,  his  father  brought  him  before  the  altar,  and 
obliged  him  to  take  an  oath,  that  he  would  never  be  in 
friendship  with  the  Romans,  nor  desist  from  opposing  their 
power,  until  he  or  they  should  be  no  more.  21.  On  his 
first  appearance  in  the  field,  he  united  in  his  own  person 
the  most  masterly  method  of  commanding,  with  the  most 
perfect  obedience  to  his  superiors.  Thus  he  was  equally 
beloved  by  his  generals,  and  the  troops  he  was  appointed  to 
lead.  22.  He  was  possessed  of  the  greatest  courage  in  op- 
posing danger,  and  the  greatest  presence  of  mind  in  retiring 
from  it.  No  fatigue  was  able  to  subdue  his  body,  nor  any 
misfortune  to  break  his  spirit ;  he  wns  equally  patient  of 
heat  and  cold,  and  he  took  sustenance  merely  to  content  na- 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  153 

lure,  not  to  delight  his  appetite.  He  was  the  best  horseman, 
and  the  swiftest  runner,  of  the  time.  23.  This  great  gene- 
ral, who  is  considered  as  the  most  skilful  commander  of  an- 
tiquity, having  overrun  all  Spain,  and  levied  a  large  army 
composed  of  various  nations,  resolved  to  carry  the  war  into 
Italy  itself,  as  the  Romans  had  before  carried  it  into  the  do- 
minions of  Carthage.  24.  For  this  purpose,  leaving  Hanno 
with  a  sufficient  force  to  guard  his  conquests  in  Spain,  he 
crossed  the  Pyrene'an  mountains  into  Gaul,  with  an  army 
of  fifty  thousand  foot,  and  nine  thousand  horse.  He  quick 
ly  traversed  that  country,  which  was  then  wild  and  exten- 
sive, and  filled  with  nations  that  were  his  declared  enemies. 
25.  In  vain  its  forests  and  rivers  appeared  to  intimidate ; 
in  vain  the  Rhone,  with  its  rapid  current,  and  its  banks 
covered  with  enemies,  or  the  Dura  branched  out  into  num- 
berless channels,  opposed  his  way  ;  he  passed  them  all  with 
undaunted  spirit,  and  in  ten  days  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the 
Alps,  over  which  he  was  to  explore  a  new  passage  into 
Italy.  26.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  winter  when  this  aston- 
ishing project  was  undertaken.  The  season  added  new  hor- 
rors to  the  scene.  The  prodigious  height  and  tremendous 
steepness  of  these  mountains,  capped  with  snow  ;  the  people 
barbarous  and  fierce,  dressed  in  skins,  and  with  long  shaggy 
hair,  presented  a  picture  that  impressed  the  beholders  with 
astonishment  and  terror.  27.  But  nothing  was  capable  of 
subduing  the  courage  of  the  Carthaginian  general.  At  the  end 
of  fifteen  days,  spent  in  crossing  the  Alps,  he  found  himself 
in  the  plains  of  Italy,  with  about  half  his  army ;  the  other 
half  having  died  of  cold,  or  been  cut  off  by  the  natives. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  conclusion  of  the  first  Punic 

war? 

2.  What  advantages  did  the   Romans  derive  from  this  interval  of 

peace? 

3.  What  species  of  entertainment  had  they  hitherto  enjoyed  ? 

4.  What  succeeded  these  low  buffooneries? 

5.  What  was  the  next  species,  and  from  whom  was  it  borrowed  1 

6.  Did  their  former  amusements  still  continue  to  please  ? 

7.  Were  the  Romans  attentive  only  to  the  arts  of  peace  ? 

8.  Who  first  incurred  their  resentment,  and  what  was  their  offence  1 

9.  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

10    Who  next  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Romans? 


J54  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

11.  What  was  their  offence,  and  what  favourable  opportunity  did  they 

choose. 

12.  What  steps  were  taken  to  oppose  them  1 

13.  Did  the  Gauls  make  any  effectual  resistance? 

14.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

15.  Did  this  victory  decide  the  contest? 

16.  What  advantages  occurred  to  the  Romans  from  this  war  1 

17.  Were  the  Carthaginians  sincere  in  their  overture' for  peace  ? 

18.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  refusal? 

19.  To  whom  was  the  conduct  of  the  war  committed  by  the  Cartha- 

ginians 1 

20.  What  rendered  Hannibal  particularly  eligible  to  this  post! 

21.  Was  he  a  favourite  with  the  army  ? 

22.  Describe  his  corporeal  and  mental  qualifications  1 

23.  What  resolution  did  he  adopt  1 

24.  What  measures  did  he  take  for  that  purpose  ? 

25.  Was  he  not  deterred  by  the  dangers  of  the  way  ? 

26.  What  rendered  this  passage  peculiarly  difficult  1 

27.  Did  these  horrors  render  the  attempt  unsuccessful  1 


SECTION  II. 

1.  As  soon  as  it  was  known  at  Rome,  that  Han'nibal,  at 
the  head  of  an  immense  army,  was  crossing  the  Alps,  the 
senate  sent  Scip'io  to  oppose  him  ;  the  armies  met  near  the 
little  river  Tici'nus,  and  the  Roman  general  was  obliged  to 
retreat  with  considerable  loss.  2.  In  the  mean  time,  Han'- 
nibal, thus  victorious,  took  the  most  prudent  precautions  to 
increase  his  army ;  giving  orders  always  to  spare  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  Gauls,  while  depredations  were  committed 
upon  those  of  Rome ;  and  this  so  pleased  that  simple  peo- 
ple, that  they  declared  for  him  in  great  numbers,  and  flock- 
ed to  his  standard  with  alacrity. 

3.  The  second  battle  was  fought  upon  the  banks  of  the 
river  Tre'bia.  4.  The  Carthaginian  general,  being  apprised 
of  the  Roman  impetuosity,  of  which  he  availed  himself  in 
almost  every  engagement,  had  sent  off  a  thousand  horse, 
each  with  a  foot  soldier  behind,  to  cross  the  river,  to  ravage 
the  enemy's  country,  and  provoke  them  to  engage.  The 
Romans  quickly  routed  this  force.  Seeming  to  be  defeated, 
they  took  the  river,  and  were  as  eagerly  pursued  by  Sem- 
pro'nius,  the  consul.  No  sooner  had  his  army  attained 
the  opposite  bank,  than  he  perceived  himself  half-conquer- 
ed, his  men  being  fatigued  with  wading  up  to  their  arm-pits, 
and  quite  benumbed  by  the  intense  coldness  of  the  wat^c 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  155 

6.  A  total  route  ensued  ;  twenty-six  thousand  of  (lie  Ro- 
mans were  either  killed  by  the  enemy,  or  drowned  in  at- 
tempting to  repass  the  river.  A  body  of  ten  thousand  men 
were  all  that  survived ;  who,  finding  themselves  enclosed  on 
every  side,  broke  desperately  through  the  enemy's  ranks, 
and  fought,  retreating,  till  they  found  shelter  in  the  city  of 
Placentia. 

6.  The  third  defeat  the  Romans  sustained  was  at  the 
lake  of  Thrasyme'ne,  near  to  which  was  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains, and  between  these  and  the  lake,  a  narrow  passage 
leading  to  a  valley  that  was  embosomed  in  hills.  It  was 
upon  these  hills  that  Han'nibal  disposed  his  best  troops 
and  it  was  into  this  valley  that  Flamin'ius,  the  Roman  ge- 
neral, led  his  men  to  attack  him.  7.  A  disposition  every 
way  so  favourable  for  the  Carthaginians,  was  also  assisted 
by  accident ;  for  a  mist  rising  from  the  lake,  kept  the  Ro- 
mans from  seeing  their  enemies  ;  while  the  army  upon  the 
mountains,  being  above  its  influence,  saw  the  whole  dispo- 
sition of  their  opponents.  8.  The  fortune  of  the  day  was 
such  as  might  be  expected  from  the  conduct  of  the  two 
generals.  The  Roman  army  was  slaughtered,  almost  be- 
fore they  could  perceive  the  enemy  that  destroyed  them. 
About  fifteen  thousand  Romans,  with  Flamin'ius  himself, 
fell  in  the  valley,  and  six  thousand  more  were  obliged  to 
yield  themselves  prisoners  of  war. 

9.  Upon  the  news  of  this  defeat,  after  the  general  con- 
sternation was  allayed,  the  senate  resolved  to  elect  a  com- 
mander with  absolute  authority,  in  whom  they  might  repose 
their  last  and  greatest  expectations.  10.  The  choice  fell 
npon  Fa'bius  Max'imus,  a  man  of  great  courage,  with  a 
happy  mixture  of  caution.  11.  He  was  apprised  that  the 
only  way  to  humble  the  Carthaginians  at  such  a  distance 
from  home,  was  rather  by  harassing  than  fighting.  For  this 
purpose,  he  always  encamped  upon  the  highest  grounds, 
inaccessible  to  the  enemy's  cavalry.  Whenever  they  mov- 
ed, he  watched  their  motions,  straitened  their  quarters,  and 
cut  off"  their  provisions. 

12.  By  these  arts,  Fa'bius  had  actually,  at  one  time,  en- 
closed Han'nibal  among  mountains,  where  it  was  impossible 
to  winter,  and  from  which  it  was  almost  impracticable  to 
extricate  his  army  without  imminent  danger.  13.  In  this 
exigence,  nothing  but  one  of  those  stratagems  of  war,  which 
only  men  of  great  abilities  invent,  could  save  him.  14.  He 
ordered  a  number  of  small  faggots  and  lighted  torches  to  be 


150  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

tied  to  the  horns  of  two  thousand  oxen,  which  should  be 
driven  towards  the  enemy.  These,  tossing  their  heads,  and 
running  up  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  seemed  to  fill  the 
whole  neighbouring  forest  with  fire ;  while  the  sentinels 
that  were  placed  to  guard  the  approaches  to  the  mountain, 
seeing  such  a  number  of  flames  advancing  towards  their 
posts,  fled  in  consternation,  supposing  the  whole  body  of  the 
enemy  was  in  arms  to  overwhelm  them.  15.  By  this  strata- 
gem Han'nibal  drew  off"  his  army,  and  escaped  through  the 
defiles  that  led  beneath  the  hills,  though  with  considerable 
damage  to  his  rear. 

16.  Fa'bius,  still  pursuing  the  same  judicious  measures, 
followed  Han'nibal  in  all  his  movements,  but  at  length  re- 
ceived a  letter  from  the  senate,  recalling  him  to  Rome,  on 
pretence  of  a  solemn  sacrifice,  requiring  his  presence.  17 
On  his  departure  from  the  army,  he  strictly  charged  Minu'- 
tius,  his  general  of  the  horse,  not  to  hazard  an  engagement 
in  his  absence.  This  command,  he  disobeyed,  and  Fa'bius 
expressed  his  determination  to  punish  so  flagrant  a  breach 
of  military  discipline.  18.  The  senate,  however,  favour- 
ing Minu'tius,  gave  him  an  equal  authority  with  the  dicta- 
tor. 19.  On  the  arrival  of  Fa'bius  at  the  camp,  he  divided 
the  army  with  Minu'tius,  and  each  pursued  his  own  sepa- 
rate plan.  20.  By  artful  management,  Han'nibal  soon 
brought  the  troops  of  the  latter  to  an  engagement,  and  they 
%vould  have  been  cut  off  to  a  man,  had  not  Fa'bius  sacrificed 
his  private  resentment  to  the  public  good,  and  hastened  to 
die  relief  of  his  colleague.  21.  By  their  united  forces  Han'- 
nibal was  repulsed,  and  Minu'tius,  conscious  of  his  rash- 
ness, resigned  the  supreme  command  into  the  hands  of  the 
dictator. 

22.  On  the  expiration  of  his  year  of  office,  Fa'bius  re- 
signed, and  Taren'tius  Varro  was  chosen  to  the  command. 

23.  Varro  was  a  man  sprung  from  the  dregs  of  the  people, 
with  nothing  but  confidence  and  riches  to  recommend  him. 

24.  With  him  was  joined  ^Emil'ius  Paulus,  of  a  disposition 
entirely  opposite ;  experienced  in  the  field,  cautious  in  ac- 
tion, and  impressed  with  a  thorough  contempt  for  the  abili- 
ties of  his  plebeian  colleague. 

25.  The  Romans  finding  themselves  enabled  to  bring  a 
competent  force  into  the  field,  being  almost  ninety  thousand 
strong,  now  again  resolved  to  meet  Han'nibal,  who  was  at 
this  time  encamped  near  the  village  of  Cannae,  with  a  wind 
m  his  rear,  that,  for  a  certain  season,  blows  constantly  one 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  157 

way,  which,  raising  great  clouds  of  dust  from  the  parched 
plains  behind,  he  knew  must  greatly  distress  an  approach- 
ing enemy.  In  this  situation  he  waited  the  coming  of  the 
Romans  with  an  army  of  forty  thousand  foot,  and  half  that 
number  of  cavalry.  26.  The  consuls  soon  appeared  to  his 
wish,  dividing  their  forces  into  two  parts,  and  agreeing  to 
take  the  command  each  day  by  turns.  27.  On  the  first  day 
of  their  arrival,  ^Emil'ius  was  entirely  averse  to  engaging. 
The  next  day,  however,  it  being  Varro's  turn  to  command, 
he,  without  asking  his  colleague's  concurrence,  gave  the 
signal  for  battle :  and  passing  the  river  Au'fidus,  that  lay 
between  both  armies,  put  his  forces  in  array.  28.  The  bat- 
tle began  with  the  light-armed  infantry ;  the  horse  engaged 
soon  after ;  but  the  cavalry  being  unable  to  stand  against 
those  of  Numid'ia,  the  legions  came  up  to  reinforce  them.  It 
was  then  that  the  conflict  became  general ;  the  Roman  sol- 
diers endeavoured,  in  vain,  to  penetrate  the  centre,  where 
the  Gauls  and  Spaniards  fought ;  which  Han'nibal  observing, 
he  ordered  part  of  those  troops  to  give  way,  and  to  permit 
the  Romans  to  embosom  themselves  within  a  chosen  body 
of  his  Africans,  whom  he  had  placed  on  their  wings,  so  as 
to  surround  them ;  upon  that  a  terrible  slaughter  of  the  Ro- 
mans ensued,  fatigued  with  repeated  attacks  of  the  Africans, 
who  were  fresh  and  vigorous.  29.  At  last  the  rout  became 
general  in  every  part  of  the  Roman  army  ;  the  boastings  of 
Varro  were  now  no  longer  heard  :  while  ^Emil'ius,  who 
had  been  wounded  by  a  slinger,  feebly  led  on  his  body  of 
horse,  and  did  all  that  could  be  done  to  make  head  against 
the  enemy.  30.  Unable  to  sit  on  horseback,  he  was  forced 
to  dismount.  It  was  in  these  deplorable  circumstances,  that 
one  Len'tulus,  a  tribune  of  the  army,  flying  from  the  enemy, 
who  at  some  distance  pursued  him,  met  ^Emil'ius,  sitting 
upon  a  stone,  covered  with  blood  and  wounds,  and  waiting 
for  the  coming  up  of  the  pursuers.  31.  "  ^EmiPius,"  cried 
the  generous  tribune,  "  you,  at  least,  are  guiltless  of  this 
day's  slaughter  ;  take  my  horse  and  fly."  "  I  thank  thee, 
Len'tulus,"  cried  the  dying  consul,  "  all  is  over,  my  part  is 
chosen.  Go,  and  tell  the  senate  to  fortify  Rome  against 
the  approach  of  the  conqueror.  Tell  Fa'bius,  that  JEmil'- 
ins,  while  living,  ever  remembered  his  advice ;  and  now, 
dying,  approves  it."  32.  While  he  was  yet  speaking,  the 
enemy  approached  ;  and  Len'tulus  at  some  distance  saw  the 
consul  expire,  feebly  fighting  in  the  midst  of  hundreds.  33. 
In  this  battle  the  Romans  lost  fifty  thousand  men,  and  so 

O 


158  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

many  knights,  that  it  is  said  that  Han'nibal  sont  tliree  bush- 
els of  gold  rings  to  Carthage,  which  those  of  this  order  wore 
on  their  fingers.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  measures  were  adopted  by  the  Romans  when  they  heard  of 

Hannibal's  approach  1 

2.  What  precautions  did  Hannibal  take  1 

3.  Where  was  the  next  battle  fought  ? 

4.  What  was  the  stratagem  employed  by  Hannibal  1 
b.  What  followed  ? 

6.  Where  was  the  next  engagement  ? 

7.  Was  this  a  judicious  disposition  of  the  Roman  general? 

8.  What  was  the  result ! 

9.  What  expedient  did  the  senate  adopt  on  this  occasion? 

10.  Who  was  chosen  to  this  office  ? 

1 1.  What  method  of  fighting  did  he  adopt  ? 

1 2.  What  was  the  success  of  this  plan  1 

1 3.  Was  his  situation  hopeless  ? 

14.  Describe  his  stratagem  and  its  consequences? 

15.  Did  it  answer  his  purpose  ? 

16.  Was  Fabius  continued  in  office? 

17.  18.  Of  what  disobedience  was  Minutius  guilty?  Was  he  punished? 

1 9.  How  was  the  army  divided  ? 

20,  2 1.  WThat  plan  did  Fabius  pursue  ?  How  was  its  superiority  proved  ? 
22,  23,  24.  Who  succeeded  Fabius?   What  was  his  character,  and  that 

of  his  colleague? 

25.  How  were  the  Carthaginians  posted  at  Cannse  ? 

26,  27.  How  did  the  consuls  behave?  How  did  Varro  act? 

28.  WThat  were  the  circumstances  of  the  engagement? 

29.  How  did  the  battle  terminate  ? 

30.  What  was  the  fate  of  ^Emilius? 

31.  What  generous  offer  was  made  by  Lentulus? 

32.  Did  the  consul  accept  the  tribune's  offer  ? 

33.  Was  the  loss  of  the  Romans  severe  ? 

*  Hannibal  has  been  blamed  for  not  having  marched  to  Rome  imme- 
diately after  this  victory  ;  but  his  army  was  by  no  means  adequate  to 
the  siege  of  the  city ;  and  the  allies  of  the  Romans  would  have  been 
able  to  curtail  his  quarters  and  intercept  his  convoys.  He  was,  besides, 
badly  provided  with  provisions  and  the  munitions  of  war,  both  of  which 
he  could  procure  by  invading  Campania,  the  course  which  he  actually 
pursued. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  159 


SECTION  III. 

1.  WHEN  the  first  consternation  was  abated  after  this 
dreadful  blow,  the  senate  came  to  a  resolution  to  create  a 
dictator,  in  order  to  give  strength  to  their  government.  2.  A 
short  time  after  Varro  arrived,  having  left  behind  him  the 
wretched  remains  of  his  army.  As  he  had  been  the  prin- 
cipal cause  of  the  late  calamity,  it  was  natural  to  suppose, 
that  the  senate  would  severely  reprimand  the  rashness  of 
his  conduct.  But  far  otherwise  !  The  Romans  went  out  in 
multitudes  to  meet  him ;  and  the  senate  returned  him  thanks 
that  he  had  not  despaired  of  the  safety  of  Rome.  3.  Fa'- 
bius,  who  was  considered  as  the  shield,  and  Marcellus,  as 
the  sword  of  Rome,  were  appointed  to  lead  the  armies  :  and 
though  Hannibal  once  more  offered  them  peace,  they  re- 
fused it,  but  upon  condition  that  he  should  quit  Italy — ? 
measure  similar  to  that  they  had  formerly  insisted  upon 
from  Pyrrhus. 

4.  Han'nibal  finding  the  impossibility  of  marching  di- 
rectly to  Rome,  or  willing  to  give  his  forces  rest  after  so 
mighty  a  victory,  led  them  to  Cap'ua,  where  he  resolved  to 
winter.  5.  This  city  had  long  been  considered  as  the  nurse 
of  luxury,  and  the  corrupter  of  all  military  virtue.  6.  Here 
a  new  scene  of  pleasure  opened  to  his  barbarian  troops  : 
they  at  once  gave  themselves  up  to  intoxication ;  and  from 
being  hardy  veterans,  became  infirm  rioters. 

7.  Hitherto  we  have  found  this  great  man  successful ; 
but  now  we   are   to  reverse  the  picture,  and  survey  him 
struggling  with  accumulated  misfortunes,  and,  at  last,  sink- 
ing beneath  them. 

8.  His  first  loss  was  at  the  siege  of  Nola,  where  Mar- 
cel'lus,  the  praetor,  made  a  successful  sally.     He  some  time 
after  attempted  to  raise  the  siege  of  Cap'ua,  attacked  the 
Romans  in  their  trenches,  and  was  repulsed  with  consider- 
able loss.    He  then  made  a  feint  to  besiege  Rome,  but  find- 
ing a  superior  army  ready  to  receive  him,  was.  obliged  to 
retire.     9.  For  many  years  he  fought  with  varied  success  ; 
Mnrc-el'lus,  his  opponent,  sometimes  gaining,  and  sometimes 
losing  the  advantage,  without  coming  to  any  decisive  en 
gagement. 

10.  The  senate  of  Carthage  at  length  came  to  a  rcsolu 


160  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

tion  of  sending  his  brother  As'drubal  to  his  assistance,  with 
a  body  of  forces  drawn  out  of  Spain.  11.  As'drubal's 
march  being  made  known  to  the  consuls  Liv'ius  and  Nero, 
they  went  against  him  with  great  expedition ;  and,  sur- 
rounding him  in  a  place  into  which  he  was  led  by  the 
treachery  of  his  guides,  they  cut  his  whole  army  to  pieces. 
12.  Han'nibal  had  long  expected  these  succours  with  im- 
patience ;  and  the  very  night  on  which  he  had  been  assured 
of  his  brother's  arrival,  Nero  ordered  As'drubal's  head  to 
be  cut  off,  and  thrown  into  his  brother's  camp.  13.  The 
Carthaginian  general  now  began  to  perceive  the  downfall 
of  Carthage  ;  and,  with  a  sigh,  observed  to  those  about  him, 
that  fortune  seemed  fatigued  with  granting  her  favours. 

14.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Roman  arms  seemed  to  be 
favoured  in  other  parts  ;  Marcel'lus  took  the  city  of  Syr'a- 
cuse,  in  Sicily,  defended  by  the  machines  and  the  fires  of 
Archime'des,*  the  mathematician.  15.  The  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword,  and  among  the  rest,  Archime'des 
himself,  who  was  found,  by  a  Roman  soldier,  meditating  in 
his  study.  16.  Marcel'lus,  the  general,  was  not  a  little 
grieved  at  his  death.  A  love  of  literature  at  that  time  began 
to  prevail  among  the  higher  ranks  at  Rome.  Marcel'lus 
ordered  Archime'des  to  be  honourably  buried,  and  a  tomb 
to  be  erected  to  his  memory. 

17.  As  to  their  fortunes  in  Spain,  though  for  a  while 
doubtful,  they  soon  recovered  their  complexion  under  the 
conduct  of  Scip'io  Africa'nus,  who  sued  for  the  office  of 
proconsul  to  that  kingdom,  at  a  time  when  every  one 
else  was  willing  to  decline  it.  18.  Scip'io,  now  no  more 
than  twenty-four  years  old,  had  all  the  qualifications  requi- 
site for  forming  a  great  general,  and  a  good  man  ;  he  united 
courage  with  tenderness,  was  superior  to  Hannibal  in  the 
arts  of  peace,  and  almost  his  equal  in  those  of  war.  19. 
His  father  had  been  killed  in  Spain,  so  that  he  seemed 
to  have  an  hereditary  claim  to  attack  that  country.  He, 
therefore,  appeared  irresistible,  obtaining  many  great  victo- 

*  This  great  man  was  equal  to  an  army  for  the  defence  of  the  place. 
He  invented  engines  which  threw  enormous-stones  against  the  Romans, 
hoisted  their  ships  in  the  air,  and  then  dashed  them  against  the  rocks 
beneath,  and  dismounted  their  battering  engines.  He  also  set  fire  to 
some  of  the  Roman  ships  by  the  use  of  reflectors,  or  looking-glasses, 
directing  the  sun's  rays  from  a  great  number  of  them  on  the  same  spot 
at  the  same  time. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  161 

ries,  yet  subduing  more  by  his  generosity,  mildness,  and 
benevolent  disposition,  than  by  the  force  of  arms.* 

20.  He   returned  with  an   army  from   the   conquest  of 
Spain,  and  was  made  consul  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine.     It 
was  at  first  supposed  he  intended  meeting  Hannibal  in  Italy, 
and  that  he  would  attempt  driving  him  from  thence  :  but  he 
had  formed  a  wiser  plan,  which  was,  to  carry  the  war  into 
Africa ;  and,  while  the   Carthaginians  kept  an  army  near 
Rome,  to  make  them  tremble  for  their  own  capital. 

21.  Scip'io  was  not  long  in  Africa  without  employment; 
Hanno  opposed  him,  but  was  defeated  and  slain.     Sy'phax, 
the  usurper  of  Numid'ia,  led  up  a  large  army  against  him. 
22.  The  Roman  general,  for  a  time,  declined  fighting,  till 
finding  an  opportunity,  he  set  fire  to  the  enemy's  tents,  and 
attacking  them  in  the  midst  of  the  confusion,  killed  forty 
thousand,  and  took  six  thousand  prisoners. 

23.  The  Carthaginians,  terrified  at  their  repeated  defeats, 
and  at  the  fame  of  Scip'io's  successes,  determined  to  recal 
Hannibal,  their  great  champion,  out  of  Italy,  in  order  to  op- 
pose the  Romans  at  home.  Deputies  were  accordingly 
despatched  with  a  positive  command  for  him  to  return  and 
oppose  the  Roman  general,  who  at  that  time  threatened 
Carthage  with  a  siege.  24.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  re- 
. gret  and  disappointment  of  Hannibal;  but  he  obeyed  the 
orders  of  his  infatuated  country  with  the  submission  of  the 
meanest  soldier ;  and  took  leave  of  Italy  with  tears,  after 
having  kept  possession  of  its  most  beautiful  parts  above 
fifteen  years. 

25.  Upon  his  arrival  at  Leptis,  in  Africa,  he  set  out  for 
Adume'tum,  and  at  last  approached  Za'ma,  a  city  about 
seventy-five  miles  from  Carthage.  26.  Scip'io,  in  the  moan 
time,  led  his  army  to  meet  him,  joined  by  Massinis'sa,  with 
six  thousand  horse ;  and  to  show  his  rival  how  little  he 

*  During  his  command  in  Spain,  a  circumstance  occurred  which  has 
contributed  more  to  the  fame  and  glory  of  Scipio  than  all  his  military 
exploits.  At  the  taking  of  New  Carthage,  a  lady  of  extraordinary  heauty 
was  brought  to  Scipio,  who  found  himself  greatly  affected  by  her  charms. 
Understanding,  however,  that  she  was  betrothed  to  a  Celtibe'rian  prince, 
named  Allu'cius,  he  generously  resolved  to  conquer  his  rising  passion, 
ami  sending  for  her  lover,  restored  her  without  any  other  recompence 
than  requesting  his  friendship  to  the  republic.  Her  parents  had  brought 
a  large  sum  of  money  for  her  ransom,  which  they  earnestly  entreated 
Scipio  to  accept ;  but  he  generously  bestowed  it  on  Allu'cius,  as  the 
portion  of  his  bride.  (Liv.  1.  xxvi.  c.  50.) 

o  2 


162  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

feared  his  approach,  sent  back  the  spies  which  were  sent  to 
explore  his  camp,  having  previously  shown  them  the  whole, 
with  directions  to  inform  Hannibal  of  what  they  had  seen. 
27.  The  Carthaginian  general,  conscious  of  his  inferiority, 
endeavoured  to  discontinue  the  war  by  negoc'iation,  .and  de- 
sired a  meeting  with  Scip'io  to  confer  upon  terms  of  peace  ; 
to  which  the  Roman  general  assented.  28.  But  after  a  long 
conference,  both  sides  parting  dissatisfied,  they  returned  to 
their  camps,  to  prepare  for  deciding  the  controversy  by  the 
sword.  29.  Never  was  a  more  memorable  battle  fought, 
whether  we  regard  the  generals,  the  armies,  the  two  states 
that  contended,  or  the  empire  that  was  in  dispute.  The 
disposition  Hannibal  made  of  his  men,  is  said  to  be  supe- 
rior to  any  even  of  his  former  arrangements.  30.  The  battle 
began  with  the  elephants  on  the  side  of  the  Carthaginians, 
which  being  terrified  at  the  cries  of  the  Romans,  and  wounded 
by  the  slingers  and  archers,  turned  upon  their  drivers,  and 
caused  much  confusion  in  both  wings  of  their  army,  where 
the  cavalry  were  placed.  31.  Being  thus  deprived  of  the 
assistance  of  the  horse,  in  which  their  greatest  strength  con- 
sisted, the  heavy  infantry  joined  on  both  sides  ;  but  the 
Romans  being  stronger  of  body,  the  Carthaginians  gave 
ground.  32.  In  the  mean  time,  Massinissa,  who  had  been 
in  pursuit  of  their  cavalry,  returning  and  attacking  them  in 
Ihe  rear,  completed  their  defeat.  A  total  rout  ensued,  twenty 
thousand  men  were  killed,  and  as  many  taken  prisoners. 
i3.  Hannibal,  who  had  done  all  that  a  great  and  undaunted 
general  could  perform,  fled  with  a  small  body  of  horse  to 
Adrume'tum  ;  fortune  seeming  to  delight  in  confounding  his 
ability,  his  valour,  and  experience. 

34.  This  victory  brought  on  a  peace.  The  Carthaginians, 
by  Hannibal's  advice,  submitted  to  the  conditions  which  the 
Romans  dictated,  not  as  rivals,  but  as  sovereigns.  35.  By 
this  treaty  the  Carthaginians  were  obliged  to  quit  Spain,  and 
all  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  They  were  bound  to 
pay  ten  thousand  talents  in  fifty  years  ;  to  give  hostages  for 
the  delivery  of  their  ships  and  their  elephants  ;  to  restore 
to  Massanis'sa  all  the  territories  thai  had  been  taken  from 
him  ;  and  not  to  make  war  in  Africa  but  by  the  permission 
of  the  Romans.  Thus  ended  the  second  Punic  war,  seven- 
teen years  after  it  had  begun. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  By  what  measure  did  the  senate  attempt  to  retrieve  this  disaster! 

2.  Did  Varro  venture  to  return,  and  what  was  his  reception  1 

3.  Who  were  appointed  to  carry  on  the  war] 

4.  What  was  Hannibal's  next  step '{ 

5.  What  was  the  character  of  this  city  ? 

6.  What  was  the  consequence  to  the  Carthaginian  armyl 

7.  Was  Hannibal  uniformly  successful  1 

8.  What  was  his  first  reverse  T 

9.  What  happened  to  him  afterwards? 

10.  What  resolution  did  the  senate  of  Carthage  adopt  1 

11.  Did  he  effect  a  junction  with  his  brother  1 

1 2.  Was  Hannibal  apprised  of  these  intended  succours  1 

13.  What  inference  d:J  Hannibal  draw  from  this! 

14.  Were  the  Romans  successful  in  other  parts  1 

15.  What  was  the  fate  of  its  inhabitants? 

16.  Was  his  loss  deplored  ? 

17.  What  was  the  success  of  the  Romans  in  Spain  ? 

18.  What  was  the  character  of  Scipio? 

19.  What  rendered  him  particularly  eligible  for  this  command  ? 

20.  Were  his  exploits  confined  to  Spain  ? 

21.  Had  he  any  formidable  opposition  to  encounter? 

22.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Scipio  ? 

23.  What  measures  did  the  Carthaginians  have  recourse  to  on  this 

occasion  ? 

24.  Was  Hannibal  pleased  at  his  recall  ? 

25.  Whither  did  he  repair  on  his  arrival  in  Africa  ? 

26.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Scipio  ? 

27.  Was  Hannibal  desirous  of  continuing  hostilities  ? 

28.  What  was  the  result  ? 

29.  Was  the  battle  of  consequence  ? 

30.  How  did  it  commence? 

31.  What  followed  ? 

32.  What  completed  the  defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

33.  What  became  of  Hannibal? 

34.  What  was  the  result  of  the  victory  ? 

35.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  ? 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

1.  WHILE  the  Romans  were  engaged  with  Hannibal,  they 
carried  on  also  a  vigorous  war  against  Philip,  king  of 
Ma'cedon,  not  a  little  incited  thereto  by  the  prayers  of  the 
Athe'nians  ;  who,  from  once  controlling  the  powers  of  Per- 


164  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

sia,  were  now  unable  to  defend  themselves.  The  Rho'dians, 
with  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  also  entered  into  the  con- 
federacy against  Philip.  2.  He  was  more  than  once  de- 
feated by  Galba,  the  consul.  He  attempted  to  besiege 
Athens,  but  the  Romans  obliged  him  to  raise  the  siege. 
He  tried  to  take  possession  of  the  Straits  of  Thermopylae, 
but  was  driven  from  thence  by  Quin'tus  Flamin'ius,  with 
great  slaughter.  He  attempted  to  take  refuge  in  Thes'saly, 
where  he  was  again  defeated,  with  considerable  loss,  and 
obliged  to  beg  a  peace,  upon  condition  of  paying  a  thousand 
talents.  3.  Peace  with  Philip  gave  the  Romans  an  oppor- 
tunity of  showing  their  generosity,  by  restoring  liberty  to 
Greece. 

4.  Antio'chus,  king  of  Syria,  was  next  brought  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Roman  arms :  after  embassies  on  the  one  side 
and  on  the  other,  hostilities  were  commenced  against  him, 
five  years  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Macedo'nian  war.  5. 
After  many  mistakes  and  great  misconduct,  he  attempted  to 
obtain  a  peace,  by  offering  to  quit  all  his  places  in  Europe, 
and  such  in  Asia  as  professed  alliance  to  Rome.  6.  But  it 
was  now  too  late ;  Scip'io  perceived  his  own  superiority, 
and  was  resolved  to  avail  himself  of  it.  7.  Antio'chus,  thus 
driven  into  resistance,  for  some  time  retreated  before  the 
enemy,  till,  being  pressed  hard,  near  the  city  of  Magnesia, 
he  was  forced  to  draw  out  his  men,  to  the  number  of  seventy 
thousand  foot,  and  twelve  thousand  horse. 

8.  Scip'io  opposed  him  Avith  forces  as  much  inferior  in 
number,  as  they  were  superior  in  courage  and  discipline. 
Antio'chus,  therefore,  was  in  a  short  time  entirely  defeated  ; 
his  own  chariots,  armed  with  scythes,  being  driven  back 
upon  his  men,  contributed  much  to  his  overthrow.  9.  Be- 
ing thus  reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  he  was  glad  to  pro- 
cure peace  from  the  Romans,  upon  their  own  terms ;  which 
were,  to  pay  fifteen  thousand  talents ;  to  quit  his  posses- 
sions in  Europe,  and  in  Asia,  on  the  hither  side  of  Mount 
Taurus  ;  to  give  twenty  hostages,  as  pledges  of  his  fidelity  ; 
and  to^  deliver  up  Hannibal,  the  inveterate  enemy  of  Rome, 
who  had  taken  refuge  at  his  court. 

10.  In  the  mean  time  Hannibal,  whose  destruction  was 
one  of  the  articles  of  this  extorted  treaty,  endeavoured  to 
avoid  the  threatened  ruin.  11.  This  consummate  general 
had  long  been  a  wanderer,  and  an  exile  from  his  ungrateful 
country.  He  had  taken  refuge  at  the  court  of  Antio'chus, 
who,  at  first,  gave  him  a  sincere  welcome,  and  made  him 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  165 


Death  of  Humibal. 


admiral  of  his  fleet,  in  which  station  he  showed  his  usual 
skill  in  stratagem.  12.  But  he  soon  sunk  in  the  Syrian's 
esteem  for  projecting  schemes  which  that  monarch  had 
neither  genius  to  understand,  nor  talents  to  execute.  13. 
Sure,  therefore,  to  find  no  safety  or  protection,  he  departed 
by  stealth  ;  and,  after  wandering  for  a  time  among  the  petty 
states,  which  had  neither  power  nor  generosity  to  protect 
him,  he  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Pru'sias,  king  of  By- 
thin'ia.  14.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Romans,  with  a  vindic- 
tive spirit  utterly  unworthy  of  them,  sent  -/Emil'ius,  one  of 
their  most  celebrated  generals,  to  demand  him  of  this  king ; 
who,  fearing  the  resentment  of  Rome,  and  willing  to  concili- 
ate their  friendship  by  this  breach  of  hospitality,  ordered  a 
guard  to  be  placed  upon  Hannibal,  with  an  intent  to  deliver 
him  up.  15.  The  poor  old  general,  thus  implacably  perse- 
cuted from  one  country  to  another,  and  finding  every  me- 
thod of  safety  cut  off,  determined  to  die.  He,  therefore,  de- 
sired one  of  his  followers  to  bring  him  poison ;  and  drink- 
ing it,  he  expired  as  he  had  lived,  with  intrepid  bravery. 

16.  A  second  Macedo'nian  war  was  soon  after  proclaim- 
ed against  Per'seus,  the  son  of  that  Philip  who  had  C  u.  c. 
been  obliged  to  beg  peace  of  the  Romans.  17.  Per'-  ^  513. 
seus,  in  order  to  secure  the  crown,  had  murdered  his  bro- 
ther Deme'trius  ;  and,  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  pleased 
with  the  hopes  of  imaginary  triumphs,  made  war  against 
Rome.  18.  During  the  course  of  this  war,  which  con- 
tinued about  three  years,  opportunities  were  offered  him  of 
cutting  off  the  Roman  army  ;  but  being  ignorant  how  to 
take  advantage  of  their  rashness,  he  spent  the  time  in  empty 


166  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

overtures  for  peace.  19.  At  length  ^Emil'ius  gave  him  a 
decisive  overthrow.  He  attempted  to  procure  safety  by  fly- 
ing into  Crete  :  but  being  abandoned  by  all,  he  ^as  obliged 
to  surrender  himself,  and  to  grace  the  splendid  triumph  of 
the  Roman  general.* 

20.  About  this  time  Massinis'sa,  the  Numidian,  having 
made  some  incursions  into  a  territory  claimed  by  the  Car- 
thaginians, they  attempted  to  repel  the  invasion.  21.  This 
brought  on  a  war  between  that  monarch  and  them ;  while 
the  Romans,  who  pretended  to  consider  this  conduct  of 
theirs  as  an  infraction  of  the  treaty,  sent  to  make  a  com- 
plaint. 22.  The  ambassadors  who  were  employed  upon 
this  occasion,  finding  the  city  very  rich  and  flourishing,  from 
the  long  interval  of  peace  which  it  had  now  enjoyed  for 
nearly  fifty  years,  either  from  motives  of  avarice  to  possess 
its  plunder,  or  from  fear  of  its  growing  greatness,  insisted 
much  on  the  necessity  of  a  war,  which  was  soon  after  pro- 
claimed, and  the  consuls  set  out  with  a  thorough  resolution 
utterly  to  demolish  Carthage. 

v  23.  The  wretched  Carthaginians,  finding  that  the  con- 
querors would  not  desist  from  making  demands,  while  the 
vanquished  had  any  thing  to  give,  attempted  to  soften  the 
victors  by  submission ;  but  they  received  orders  to  leave 
the  city,  which  was  to  be  levelled  with  the  ground.  24. 
This  severe  command  they  received  with  all  the  distress  of 
a  despairing  people  :  they  implored  for  a  respite  from  such 
a  hard  sentence :  they  used  tears  and  lamentations ;  but 
finding  the  consuls  inexorable,  they  departed  with  a  gloomy 
resolution,  prepared  to  suffer  the  utmost  extremities,  and 
fight  to  the  last  for  their  seat  of  empire. 

25.  Those  vessels,  therefore,  of  gold  and  silver,  which 
their  luxury  had  taken  such  pride  in,  were  converted  into 
arms.  The  women  parted  also  with  their  ornaments,  and 
even  cut  off  their  hair  to  be  converted  into  strings  for  the 
bowmen.  As'drubal,  who  had  been  lately  condemned  for  op- 
posing the  Romans,  was  now  taken  from  prison  to  head 
their  army ;  and  such  preparations  were  made,  that  \vhen 
the  consuls  came  before  the  city,  which  they  expected  to 
find  an  easy  conquest,  they  met  with  such  resistance  as 
quite  dispirited  their  forces,  and  shook  their  resolution.  26. 
Several  engagements  were  fought  before  the  walls,  with  dis- 
advantage to  the  assailants ;  so  that  the  siege  would  have 

•  From  this  time  Macedon  became  a  Roman  province. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  107 

» 

been  discontinued,  had  not  Seip'io  ^Emilia'nus,  the  adopted, 
son  of  Africa  'mis,  wlio  was  now  appointed  to  command  it, 


used  as  ni^h  skill  to  save  hisjforces  after  a  defeat,  as  to  in- 
spire them  with  fresh  hopes  OT  a  victory.  27.  But  all  his 
arts  would  have  failed,  had  he  not  found  means  to  seduce 
Phar'nes,  the  master  of  the  Qprthaginian  horse,  jvho  came 
over  to  his  side.  The  unhappy  m^nsmen  soofi  saw  the 
enemy  make  nearer  approaches  ;  the  wall  which  led  to  the 
haven  was  quickly  demolished  ;  soon  after  the  forum  itself 
was  taken,  which  offered  to  the  conquerors  a  "deplorable 
spectacle  of  houses  nodding  to  their  falL;*heaps  of  men  ly- 
ing dead,  hundreds  of  the  wounded  struggling  to  emerge 
from  the  carnage  around  them,  and  deplojyng  tKeir  own  and 
their  country's  ruin.  The  citadel  soon  after  surrendered  at 
discretion.  28.  All  now  but  the  temple  was  subdued,  and 
that  was  defended  by  deserters  from  the  Roman  army,  and 
those  who  had  been  most  forward  to  undertake  the  war. 
These  expected  no  mercy,  and  finding  their  condition  des- 
perate, set  fire  to  the  building,  and  voluntarily  perished  in 
the  flames.  This  was  the  end  of  one,  of  the  most  renowned 
cities  in  the  world,  for  arts,  opulence,  and  extent  of  do 
minion  ;  it  had  rivalled  Rome  for  above  a  hundred  years, 
and,  at  one  time,  was  thought  to  have  the  superiority. 

29.  The  conquest  of  Carthage  was  soon  followed  by 
many  others.  The  same  year  Corinth,  one  of  the  noblest 
cities  of  Greece,  was  levelled  to  the  ground.  Scip'io  also 
having  laid  siege  to  Numan'tia,  the  strongest  city  in  Spain, 
the  wretched  inhabitants,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy,  fired  the  city  over  their  own  heads  ;  and  all,  to 
a  man,  expired  in  the  flames.  Thus  Spain  became  a  Ro- 
man province,  and  was  governed  thenceforward  by  two  an- 
nual praetors. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  With  whom  were  the  Romans  at  war  besides  Carthage,  and  who 

assisted  in  it? 

2.  What  was  the  success  of  Philip  in  this  war? 

3.  What  was  the  consequence  of  peace  with  Philip  ? 

4.  Who  next  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the  Romans  ? 

5.  What  was  the  result  ? 

6.  Were  his  offers  accepted  ? 

7.  Did  Antiochus  boldly  face  the  Romans  ? 


168  *    '*       HISTORY  .OF    ROME.  . 

%  "•  fc  *•'     ^ 

8.  What  werejUthc  strongtk  and  character  of  the,  Roman  army,  anJ 

what  the  re'suk  of  the»baltl<?  1     .»•'  ' 

9.  Was  he  able  to  make  further  j*sis£ince? 

10.  Was  HfenrMjaJ  delivered  up? ^k 

1 1 .  What  occasioned  Hannibal  to  jrat  himself  i 


4  it  himself  in  the  po-vrer  of  Antiochus? 

12.  Was  thjSlundness4asting  ?       ^ 

13.  Whithqr  did^  he-next  betake  hjfcself  ? 

14.  Was  hemp-  safety  at  thif 


tilled 

15.  How  di^HanmbaUpsclP  his  persecution? 

16.  Against  whSflpBi^th^  Romans  next  direct  their  arms  ? 

17.  What  occasioned  it  ?     ^  . 

18.  Was  Pergcus-V^kilful  ge*ncral? 

19.  What  was.fcftctJS^t  of  the  war  ? 

20.  What  farther  hapmened  about  this  time  ? 

21.  What  waswhe  consequence? 

22.  Was  this  Aisun^lstanding  peaceably  accommodated  ? 

23.  By  what  means  did  the  Carthaginians  endeavour  to  avert  their  fate  ? 

24.  Did  they  obey  these  orders  ? 

25.  What  extraordinary  efforts  were  made  for  the  defence  of  the  city  ? 
2fi.  Were  the  Romans  successful  in  their  attempts  ? 

27.  Describe  the  progress  of  the  siege. 

28;  Was  the  city  now  completely  in  the  power  of  the  Romans?- 

29.  What  other  conquests  were  made  by  the  Romans  ? 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  CARTHAGE  TO  THE  END  OF  THE 
SEDITION  OF  THE  GRACCHI. U.  C.  621. 

1.  THE  Romans  being  now  left  without  a  rival,  the  tri- 
umphs and  the  spoils  of  Asia  introduced  a  taste  for, splendid 
expense,  and  this  produced  avarice  and  inverted  ambition. 
2.  The  two  Gracchi  were  the  first  who  saw  this  strange 
corruption  among  the  great,  and  resolved  to  repress  it,  by 
renewing  the  Licinian  law,  which  had  enacted  that  no  per- 
son in  the  state  should  possess  above  five  hundred  acres  of 
land.  3.  Tibe'rius  Gracchus,  the  elder  of  the  two,  was, 
both  for  the  advantages  of  his  person  and  the  qualities  of  his 
mind,  very  different  from  Scipio,  of  whom  he  was  the 
grandson.  .  He  seemed  more  ambitious  of  power  than  de- 
sirous of  glory  ;  his  compassion  for  the  oppressed  was  equal 
to  his  animosity  against  the  oppressors  ;  but  unhappily  his 
passions,  rather  than  his  reason,  operated  even  in  his  pur- 


LIE   COMMONWEALTH. 


169 


suits  of  f}.«4ue  ;  and  theoe  always  drove  him  beyond  the  line 
of  duty.  4.  This  was  the  disposition  of  the  elder  Grac- 
chus, whflUbund  the  lower  orders  of  people  ready  to  second 
all  his  proposals.  5.  The  above  law,  though  at  first  carried 
on  with  proper  moderation,  greatly  disgusted  the  rich,  who 
endeavoured  to  persuade  the  people  that  the  proposer  only 
aimed  at  disturbing  the  government,^and  throwing  all  things 
into  confusion.  6.  But  Gracchus,  who  was  a  man  of  the 
greatest  eloquence  of  his  time,  easily  wiped  off  vhese  im- 
pressions from  the  minds  of  the  people,  already  hritated  by 
their  wrongs,  and  at  length  the  law  was  passed. 

7.  The  death  of  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gam-us,  fumished 
Gracchus  with  a  new  opportunity  of  gratifying  the  meaner 
part  of  the  people  at  the  expense  of  the  great.  8.  This 
king  had  by  his  last  will  made  the  Romans  his  heirs  ;  and 
it  was  now  proposed,  that  the  money  so  left  should  be  di- 
vided among  the  poor,  in  order  to  furnish  them  with  proper 
-?  utensils  for  cultivating  the  lands  which  became  theirs  by  the 
•fateTSw'of  partition.  9.  This  caused  still  greater  disturb- 
aflces  than  before,  and  the  senate  assembled  upon  the  occa- 
^sion,  in -order  to  concert  tiT3"^ost  proper  methods  of  se- 
g  thesje  .riches  to  themselves,  which  they  now  valued 
re  the  safety  of  the  commonwealth.  10.  They  had  nu- 
s  dependents,  who  were  willing  to  give  up  liberty  for 
and  ease.  These,  -therefore,  were  commanded  to  be 
idiness  to  intimid&te^he, people,  who  expected  no  such 
"  )n,  and  who  were  now  attending  to  the  harangues 
thus  in.  the  capitol.  H.  Here,  as  a  clampur  was 
""  the  clithrtl  oflhe  gre.a^cHHone  side,  and  by  the  fa- 
>f  the  law  ernlb>otkw;!XGracchus  found  hisispeechj 
>u  -begged  in  vain  to  be  attended  -to  f' 
at  last|fcaLSUMdjn9>  hand  to  his  head,  to  intimate  that  his 
life  was  in^wpfrlhe  p:misans  of  the  senate  gave"  out  that 
he  wantedwRfiadem;  12.  In  consequence  of  tflis  an  uni- 
versal«H)roar  :spread  itself  through  all  ranks  of  the  people  ; 
the  co^Bpt-part  of  the  senate  were  of  opinion  that  the  con- 
sul shoK'defead  the  c6"mmonvjjealth  by  force  of  arms  ;  but 


Jhis 
Nas'ica; 

preparing  lurhsel 
defend  the  digmt 
him. 

and  clients  afiwe' 
tol,  striking 


declining   SUJ^L  valence,  Scip'io 

intest,  desired  tRat  all  who  would 
authority  of  thf  "RLWS,  should  follow 
d  by  ^(ferge  body  of  senators 
s,  he^went  dirfctly  to  Hie  Capi 
;^red  td*  resist. 


170  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

14.  Tibe'rius  Gracchus,  perceiving  by  the  tumult  that  his 
life  was  in  danger,  endeavoured  to  fly  ;  and  throwing  away 
his  robe  to  expedite  his  escape,  attempted  to  ffet  through 
the  throng ;  but  happening  to  fall  over  a  person  already  on 
the  ground,  Sature'ius,  one  of  his  colleagues  in  the  tribune- 
ship,  who  was  of  the  opposite  faction,  struck  him  dead  with 
a  piece  of  a  seat ;  and  not  less  than  three  hundred  of  his 
hearers  shared  the  same  fate,  being  killed  in  the  tumult. 
15.  Nor  did  the  vengeance  of  the  senate  rest  here,  but  ex- 
tended to  numbers  of  those  who  seemed  to  espouse  his 
cause  ;  many  of  them  were  put  to  death,  many  were  banish- 
ed, and  nothing  was  omitted  to  inspire  the  people  with  an 
abhorrence  of  his  pretended  crimes.  Soon  after  the  death 
of  Gracchus  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  Sicily  among  the  slaves, 
who,  exasperated  by  the  cruelties  exercised  upon  them  by 
their  masters,  revolted,  and  having  seized  Enna,  chose  one 
Eunus  for  their  king.  This  new  monarch  gained  consider- 
able advantages  over  the  Romans,  took  the  strong  cify  of 
Tauromin'ium,  and  protracted  the  war  upwards  of  six  years. 
At  length  he  was  completely  defeated  by  the  consul  Rupil'- 
ius,  and  his  followers  slaughtered  or  executed  :  as  for  Eu- 
nus, he  died  in  prison. 

16.  Ca'ius  Gracchus  was  but  twenty-one  upon  the  death 
of  Tibe'rius  his  brother ;  and  as  he  was  too  young  to  be> 
much  dreaded  by  the  great,  so  he  was  at  first  unwilling  tof 
incur  their  resentment  by  aims  beyond  his  reach ;  he  there-'* 
fore  lived  in  retirement,  unseen  and  forgotten.  17.  BuV 
while  he  thus  seemed  desirous  of  avoiding  popularity,  he 
was  employed  in  his  solitude  in  the  study  of  eloquence, 
which  was  the  surest  means  to  obtain  it.  18.  At  length, 
when  he  thought  himself  qualified  to  serve  his  country,  he 
offered  himself  a  candidate  for  the  qusestqrshipMb  the  army 
in  Sardin'ia,  which  he  easily  obtained.  ${\g  jalour,  affa- 
bility, and*  temperance  in  this  office  were  remarked  by  all. 
19.  The  king  of  Numid'ia  sending  a  present  of  corn  to  the 
Romans,  ordered  his  ambassadors  to  say,  that  it  ^fes  a  tri- 
bute to  the  virtues  of  Ca'ius  Gracchus.  20.  This  Jlie  srenate 
treated  with  scorn,  and  ordered  the  ambassadpgqj^be  treated 
with  contempt,  as  jgnorant  barbarians,  avhraflWio  inflamed 
the  resentment  of  young  Gracchus-,*,hathe  immediately  came 
from  the  army  to  complain  of  the  indigy^thrown  upon  his 
reputation,  and  to  offert<slumself  for  th^^nbuneship  of  the 
people.  21.  It  was  then  that  th^^puth,  who  had  been 
hitherto  neglected,  proved  a  mor^^mudable  enemy  than 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  171 

even  his  brother  had  been.  Notwithstanding  the  warmest 
opposition  from  the  senate,  he  was  declared  tribune  by  a 
very  lar^re  majority;  and  he  now  prepared  for  the  career 
which  his  brother  had  run  before  him. 

22.  His  first  effort  was  to  have  Pornpil'ius,  one  of  the 
most  inveterate  of  his  brother's  enemies,  cited  before  the 
people;  but  rather  than  stand  the  event  of  a  trial,  he  chose 
to  go  into  voluntary  banishment.  23.  He  next  procured  an 
edict,  granting  the  freedom  of  the  city  to  the  inhabitants  of 
La'tium,  and  soon  after  to  all  the  people  on  the  hither  side 
of  the  Alps.  24.  He  afterwards  fixed  the  price  of  corn  at  a 
moderate  standard,  and  procured  a  monthly  distribution  of 
it  among  the  people.  25.  He  then  proceeded  to  an  inspec- 
tion into  the  late  corruptions  of  the  senate ;  in  which  the 
whole  body  being  convicted  of  bribery,  extortion,  and  the 
sale  of  offices  (for  at  that  time  a  total  degeneracy  seemed  i< 
have  taken  place,)  a  law  was  made,  transferring  the  power 
of  judging  corrupt  magistrates  from  the  senate  to  the  knights, 
which  made  a  great  alteration  in  the  constitution. 

26.  Gracchus,  by  these  means,  being  grown  not  only  po- 
pular, but  powerful,  was  become  an  object  at  which  the 
senate  aimed  all  their  resentment.  27.  But  he  soon  found 
the  populace  a  faithless  and  unsteady  support.  They  began 
to  withdraw  all  their  confidence  from  him,  and  to  place  it 
upon  Drusus,  a  man  insidiously  set  up  against  him  by  the 
senate.  28.  It  was  in  vain  that  he  revived  the  Licin'ian  law 
in  their  favour,  and  called  up  several  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  different  towns  of  Italy  to  his  support ;  the  senate  or- 
dered all  to  depart  from  Rom^  and  even  sent  one  stranger 
to  prison  whom  Gracchus  had  invited  to  live  with  him,  and 
honoured  with  his  table  and  friendship.  29.  To  this  indig- 
nity was  shortly  after  added  a  disgrace  of  a  more  fatal  ten- 
dency ;  for,  standing  for  the  tribuneship  a  third  time,  he  was 
rejected.  It  was  supposed  that  the  officers,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  make  the  return,  were  bribed  to  reject  him,  though 
fairly  chosen. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  consequences  followed  this  great  prosperity  of  the  Roman 

arms! 

2.  Who  first  resolved  to  repress  the  corruption  which  had  taken  plac« 

in  the  manners  of  the  people  1 


i72  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

3.  Whattvas  the.  character  of  Tiberius  Gracchns? 
4    Had  he  -any  iafluence  with  the  people  1 
6.  How. was  the  Licinian  law  received  7 

6.  Dili  the  people  believe  them  1 

7.  What  furthered  his  views  1 

8.  What  advantages  occurred  to  the  Romans  by  his  death  t 

9.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  will  7 

10.  What  measures  did  they  adopt  for  this  purpose  7 

1 1.  What  was  the  consequence  of  their  interference  T 

12.  Was  this  insinuation  believed  7 

13.  Did  Scipio  use  violence  7 

14.  What  was  the  fate  of  Gracchus  and  his  friends  7 

1 5.  Were  his  enemies  satisfied  with  this  vengeance  7 

16.  What  became  of  Caius  Gracchus  in  the  mean  time  7 

17.  Was  he  really  desirous  of  avoiding  popularity  7 

18.  In  what  way  did  he  bring  himself  into  notice  7 

19.  What  proof  of  esteem  was  given  him  7 

20.  How  was  this  compliment  received  7 

21.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  resentment? 

22.  What  was  his  first  effort  7 

23.  What  was  his  next  act  7 

24.  What  was  the  next  7 

25.  What  followed  1 

26.  What  was  the  consequence  of  these  acts  7 

27.  Did  he  find  steady  friends  7 

28.  Were  his  measures  of  precaution  successful  7 
•89.  What. farther  indignities  did  he  experience? 


SECTION  II. 

1.  IT  was  now  seen  that  the  fate  of  Gracchus  was  re 
solved  on.  Opim'ius,  the  consul,  was  not  contented  with 
the  protection  of  the  senate,  the  knights,  and  a  numerous 
retinue,  of  slaves  and  clients ;  he  ordered  a  body  of  Can- 
dians,  who  were  mercenaries  in  the  Roman  service,  to  fol- 
low and  attend  him.  2.  Thus  guarded,  and  conscious  of 
the  superiority  of  his  forces,  he  insulted  Gracchus  where- 
ever  he  met  him,  doing  all  in  his  power  to  produce  a  quar- 
rel, in  which  he  might  have  a  pretence  for  despatching  his 
enemy  rn  'tke  fray.  -  3L  Gfaechus  avoided  all  recrimination, 
and,  as  if  apprised  of  the  consul's  designs,  would  not  even 
wear  any.  arms  for  his  defence.  4.  His  friend  Ful'vius 
Flaccus,  however,  a  zealous  tribune,  was  not  so  remiss,  but 
resolved  to  oppose  party  against  party,  and  for  this  purpose 
brought  up  several  countrymen  to  Rome,  who  came  under 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  i73 

pretence  of  desiring  employment.  5.  When  the  day  for 
determining  the  controversy  was  arrived,  the  two  parties, 
early  in  the  morning,  attended  at  the  Capitol,  where,  while 
the  consul  was  sacrificing,  according  to  custom,  one  of  the 
lictors  taking  up  the  entrails  of  the  beast  that  was  slain  in 
order  to  remove  them,  could  not  forbear  crying  out  to  Flac'- 
cus  and  his  party,  "  Make  way,  ye  factious  citizens,  for 
honest  men."  6.  This  insult  so  provoked  the  party  to 
whom  it  was  addressed,  that  they  instantly  fell  upon  him, 
and  pierced  him  to  deatli  with  the  instruments  they  used  in 
writing,  which  they  then  happened  to  have  in  their  hands. 
7.  This  muflter  caused  a  great  disturbance  in  the  assembly. 
Gracchus,  wt^  saw  the  consequences  that  were  likely  to 
ensue,  reprimanded  his  party  for  giving  his  enemies  such 
advantage  over  him  ;  and  now  prepared  to  lead  his  followers 
to  Mount  Av'entine.  8.  It  was  there  he  learned,  that  a 
proclamation  had  been  made  by  the  consuls,  that  whosoever 
should  bring  either  his  head,  or  that  of  Flaccus,  should  re- 
ceive its  weight  in  gold  as  a  reward.  9.  It  was  to  no  pur- 
pose that  he  sent  the  youngest  son  of  Flaccus,  who  was  yet 
a  child,  with  proposals  for  an  accommodation.  The  senate^ 
and  the  consuls,  who  were  sensible  of  their  superiority,  re- 
jected "SfTlTts  offers,  and  resolved  to  punish  his  offence  with 
nothing  less  than  death-;  and  they  offered  pardon  also  to  all 
who  should  leave  him  immediately.  10.  This  produ< 
theVdesired  effect ;  the  people  fell  from  him  by  degrees,  and 
left  *him  with  very  inferior  forces.  11.  In  the  meantime, 
Opim'ius,  the  consul,  who  thirsted  for  slaughter,  leading  his 
forces  up  to  Mount  Av'entine,  fell  in  among  the  crowd  with 
ungovernable  fury.  A  terrible  slaughter  of  the  scarcely  re- 
sisting multitude  ensued,  and  not  less  than  three  thousand 
citizens  were  slain  upon  the  spot.  12.  Flaccus  attempted 
.to  find  ."shelter  in  a  ruinous  cottage;  but,  being  discovered, 
was  .slain,  with  his  eldest  son.  Gracchus,  at  first,  retired 
to  the>  temple  of  Dian'a,  where  he  resolved  to  die  by  his 
own  h?UM,*but  was  prevented  by  two  of  h's  faithful  friends 
and  followers,  Pompo'nius  and  Lucin'ius,  who  forced  him 
to  seek  safety  by  flight.  Jfhence  he  made  the  best  of  his 
way  across  abridge  that-lsd  from  the  city,  still  attended  by 
his  two  generous  friendsj*and  a  Grecian  slave,  whose  name 
was  Philoc'rates.  13.  But  his  pursuers  still  pressed  upon 
him  from  behind,  and  when  come  to  the  foot  of  the  bridge, 
he  was  obliged  to  turn  and  face  the  enemy.  His  two  friends 
were  soon  slain,  defending  him  against  the  crowd  ;  and  he 
p  2 


174  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

was  forced  to  take  refuge,  with  his  slave,  in  a  grove  beyond 
the  Ti'ber,  which  had  long  been  dedicated  to  the  Furies. 
14.  Here,  finding  himself  surrounded  on  every  side,  and  no 
way  left  of  escaping,  he  prevailed  upon  his  slave  to  despatch 
him.  The  slave  immediately  after  killed  himself,  and  fell 
down  upon  the  body  of  his  beloved  master.  The  pursuers 
coming  up,  cut  off  the  head  of  Gracchus,  and  placed  it  for  a 
while  as  a  trophy  on  a  spear.  15.  Soon  after,  one  Sep- 
timule'ius  carried  it  home,  and  taking  out  the  brain  artfully 
filled  it  with  lead,  in  order  to  increase  its  weight,  and  then 
received  of  the  consul  seventeen  pounds  of  gold  as  his  re- 
compence. 

16.  Thus  died  Cai'us  Gracchus.  He  is  usually  impeach- 
ed by  historians,  as  guilty  of  sedition ;  but  from  what  we 
see  of  his  character,  the  disturbance  of  public  tranquillity 
was  rather  owing  to  his  opposers  than  to  him  ;  so  that,  in- 
stead of  calling  the  tumults  of  that  time  the  sedition  of  the 
Gracchi,  we  should  rather  call  them  the  sedition  of  the  sen- 
ate against  the  Gracchi ;  since  the  efforts  of  the  latter  were 
made  in  vindication  of  a  law  to  which  the  senate  had  as- 
sented ;  and  the  designs  of  the  former  were  supported  by  an 
extraneous  armed  power  from  the  country,  that  had  never 
before  meddled  in  the  business  of  legislation,  and  whose  in- 
troduction gave  a  most  irrecoverable  blow  to  the  constitu- 
tion. 17.  Whether  the  Gracchi  were  actuated  by  motives 
of  ambition  or  of  patriotism,  in  the  promulgation  of  the  law, 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  ;  but  from  what  appears,  jus- 
tice was  on  their  side,  and  all  injury  on  that  of  the  sen- 
ate. 18.  In  fact,  this  body  was  now  changed  from  that 
venerable  assembly,  which  we  have  seen  overthrowing  Pyr'- 
rhus  and  Hannibal,  as  much  by  their  virtues  as  their  arms. 
Thy  were  now  only  to  be  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
people  by  their  superior  luxuries ;  and  ruled  the  common- 
wealth by  the  weight  of  an  authority  gained  from  riches 
and  mercenary  dependents.  19.  The  venal  and  the  base 
were  attached  to  them  from  motives  of  self-interest ;  and 
they  who  still  ventured  to  be  independent,  were  borne  down, 
and  entirely  lost  in  an  infamous  majority.  20.  In  short,  the 
empire  at  this  period  came  under  the  government  of  a  hate- 
ful aristocracy;  the  tribunes,  who  were  formerly  accounted 
protectors  of  the  people,  becoming  rich  themselves,  and  hav- 
ing no  longer  opposite  interests  from  those  of  the  senate, 
concurred  in  their  oppressions  ;  for  the  struggle  was  not  now 
between  patricians  and  plebeians,  who  only  nominally  dif- 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  175 

fered,  but  between  the  rich  and  the  poor.  21.  The  lower  or- 
ders of  the  state  being  by  these  means  reduced  to  a  degree 
of  hopeless  subjection,  instead  of  looking  after  liberty, 
only  sought  for  a  leader ;  while  the  rich,  with  all  the  sus- 
picion of  tyrants,  terrified  at  the  slightest  appearance  of  op- 
position, entrusted  men  with  uncontrollable  power,  from 
whom  they  had  not  strength  to  withdraw  it  when  the  danger 
was  over.  22.  Thus  both  parties  of  the  state  concurred  in 
giving  up  their  freedom  ;  the  fears  of  the  senate  first  made 
the  dictator,  and  the  hatred  of  the  people  kept  him  in  his 
office.  Nothing  can  be  more  dreadful  to  a  thinking  mind 
than  the  government  of  Rome  from  this  period,  till  it  found 
refuge  under  the  protection  of  Augus'tus. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  appearances  now  threatened,  the  life  of  Gracchus? 

2.  How  did  he  commence  hostilities  T 

3.  How  did  Gracchus  attempt  to  divert  the  storm? 

4.  Were  his  friends  equally  prudent  1 

5.  What  unhappy  incident  increased  the  animosity  ? 

6.  How  was  this  insult  revenged  '? 

7.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  outrage  ? 

8.  What  news  did  he  hear  on  his  arrival  1 

9.  Did  he  attempt  to  conciliate  his  enemies,  and  were  his  attempts  suc- 

cessful ? 

10.  Was  this  offer  accepted  ? 

11.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  consul! 

12.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  chiefs? 

1 3.  Did  Gracchus  effect  his  escape  ? 

14.  Did  he  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  ? 

15.  What  artifice  did  avarice  contrive  1 

1 6.  Was  the  conduct  of  Gracchus  dcscrring  of  praise  or  blame  ? 

17.  By  what  motives  were  the  Gracchi  supposed  to  be  actuated  ' 

18.  What  was  the  character  of  the  senate  at  this  period  1 

1 9.  What  was  the  character  of  their  adherents  ? 

20.  What  was  the  nature  of  their  government  ? 
81.  What  concurred  to  perpetuate  this  tyranny? 


176  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SECTION  I. 

FROM  THE  SEDITION  OF  GRACCHUS,  TO  THE  PERPETUAL 
DICTATORSHIP  OF  SYLLA,  WHICH  WAS  THE  FIRST  STEP 
TOWARDS  THE  RUIN  OF  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  U.  C.  634. 

1.  WHILE  the  Romans  were  in  this  state  of  deplorable 
corruption  at  home,  they  nevertheless  were  very  successful 
in  their  transactions  with  foreign  powers. 

2.  Among  other  victories,  a  signal  one  was  gained  over 
Jugur'tha,  king  of  Numid'ia.     He  was  grandson  to  Mas- 
sinis'sa,  who  sided  with  Rome  against  Hannibal,  and  edu- 
cated with  the  two  young  princes,  who  were  left  to  inherit 
the  kingdom.     3.  Being  ittperior  in  abilities  to  both,  and 
greatly  in  favour  with  the  people,  he  murdered  Hiemp'sal, 
the  eldest  son,  but  Adher'bal,  the  younger,  escaped,  and  fled 
to  the  Romans  for  succour.     4.  Jugur'tha,  sensible   how 
much  avarice  and  injustice  had  crept  into  the  senate,  sent 
his  ambassajjjl's  to  Rome  with  large  presents,  which  so  suc- 
cessfully prevailed,  that  the  senate  decreed  him  half  the 
kingdom  thus  acquired  by  murder  and  usurpation,  and  sent 
ten  commissioners  to  divide  it  between  him  and  Adher'bal. 
5.  The  commissioners,  of  whom  Opim'ius,  the  enemy  of 
Gracchus,  was  one,  willing  to  follow  the  example  which 
the  senate  had  set  them,  were  also  bribed  to  bestow  the 
richest  and  most  populous  parts  of  that  kingdom  upon  the 
usurper.     6.  But  Jugur'tha  resolved  to  possess  himself  of 
the  whole  :  and  willing  to  give  a  colour  to  his  ambition,  he 
only  made,  in  the  beginning,  incursions  in  order  to  provoke 
reprisals,  which   he   knew   how   to   convert  into   seeming 
aggression.     7.  This  scheme  failing,  he  resolved  to  throw 
off  the  mask,  and  besieging  Adher'bal  in  Cirta,  his  capital, 
he  at  length  got  him  into  his  power,  and  murdered  him. 
8.  The  Roman  people,  who  had  still  some  generosity  re- 
maining, unanimously  complained  of  this  treachery,   and 
procured  a  decree  that  Jugur'tha  should  be  summoned  in 
person  before  them,  to  give  an  account  of  all  such  as  had 
accepted  bribes.     9.  Jugur'tha  made  no  difficulty  of  throw- 
ing himself  upon  the  clemency  of  Rome ;  but  not  giving 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  177 

the  people  satisfaction,  he  had  orders  to  depart  the  city.* 
10.  In  the  meantime,  Alba'nus,  the  consul,  was  sent  with 
an  army  to  follow  him,  who  giving  up  the  direction  of  it  to 
Au'lus,  his  brother,  a  person  who  was  every  way  unquali- 
fied for  the  command,  the  Romans  were  compelled  to  hazard 
a  battle  upon  disadvantageous  terms ;  and  the  whole  army,  to 
avoid  being  cut  to  pieces,  was  obliged  to  pass  under  the  yoke. 

11.  In  this  condition  Metel'lus,  the  succeeding  consul, 
found  affairs  upon  his  arrival  in  Numid'ia  ;  officers  in  whom 
the  soldiers  had  no  confidence,  an  army  without  discipline, 
and  an  enemy  ever  watchful  and  intriguing.  12.  However, 
by  his  great  attention  to  business,  and  by  integrity  that  shud- 
dered at  corruption,  he  soon  began  to  retrieve  the  affairs  of 
Rome,  and  the  credit  of  the  army.  In  the  space  of  two 
years,  Jugur'tha  was  overthrown  in  several  battles,  forced  out 
of  his  own  dominions,  and  constrained  to  beg  a  peace.  13. 
Thus  all  things  promised  Metel'lus  a  happy  termination  of 
the  war ;  but  he  was  frustrated  in  his  expectations  by  the 
intrigues  of  Ca'ius  Ma'rius,  his  lieutenant,  who  came  in  to 
reap  that  harvest  of  glory  which  the  other's  industry  had 
sown.  14.  Ca'ius  Ma'rius  was  born  in  a  village  near  Apin'- 
mm,  of  poor  parents,  who  gained  their  living  by  their  la- 
bour. As  he  had  been  bred  up  in  a  participation  of  their 
toils,  his  manners  were  as  rude  as  his  countenance  was 
frightful.  He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  stature,  incom- 
parable strength,  and  undaunted  bravery. 

15.  When  Metel'lus  was  obliged  to  solicit  at  Rome  for  a 
continuance  of  his  command,  Ma'rius,  whose  ambition  knew 
no  bounds,  was  resolved  to  obtain  it  for  himself,  and  thus 
gain  all  the  glory  of  putting  an  end  to  the  war.  1 6.  To 
that  end  he  privately  inveighed  against  Metel'lus  by  his 
emissaries  at  Rome,  and  having  excited  a  spirit  of  discon- 
tent against  him,  he  had  leave  granted  him  to  go  there  to 
stand  for  the  consulship,  which  he  obtained,  contrary  to  the 
expectation  and  interest  of  the  nobles. 

17.  Ma'rius,  being  thus  invested  with  the  supreme  power 
of  managing  the  war,  showed  himself  every  way  fit  for  the 
commission.  His  vigilance  was  equal  to  his  valour,  and 
he  quickly  made  himself  master  of  the  cities  which  Jugur'- 

*  So  astonished  was  Jugur'tha  at  the  mercenary  disposition  discovered 
by  the  Romans,  that  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  on  leaving  the  city, 
41  Oh,  Rome  !  thou  wouldst  thyself  be  sold,  could  a  chapman  be  found 
to  purchase  thee." 


178  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

tha  had  yet  remaining  in  Numid'ia.*  18.  This  unfortunate 
prince,  finding  himself  unable  to  make  opposition  singly, 
was  obfeged  to  have  recourse  for  assistance  to  Bocchus,  king 
of  Maurita'nia,  to  whose  daughter  he  was  married".  A  bat- 
tle soon  after  ensued,  in  which  the  Numid'ians  surprised 
the  Roman  camp  by  night,  and  gained  a  temporary  advan- 
tage. However,  it  was  but  of  short  continuance,  for  Ma'- 
rius  soon  after  overthrew  them  in  two  signal  engagements, 
in  one  of  which  not  less  than  ninety  thousand  of  the  African 
army  were  slain.  19.  Bocchus  now  finding  the  Romans 
too  powerful  to  be  resisted,  did  not  think  it  expedient  to 
hazard  his  own  crown,  to  protect  that  of  his  ally ;  he,  there- 
fore, determined  to  make  peace,  upon  whatever  conditions 
he  might  obtain  it;  and  accordingly  sent  to  Rome,  imploring 
protection.  20.  The  senate  received  the  ambassadors  with 
their  usual  haughtiness,  and  without  complying  with  their 
request,  granted  the  suppliant,  not  their  friendship,  but  their 
pardon.  Notwithstanding,  after  some  time,  he  was  given 
to  understand,  that  the  delivering  up  of  Jugur'tha  to  the 
Romans  would,  in  some  measure,  conciliate  their  favour, 
and  soften  their  resentment.  21.  At  first  the  pride  of  Boc- 
chus struggled  against  such  a  proposal ;  but  a  few  inter- 
views with  Sylla  reconciled  him  to  this  treacherous  measure, 
and  Jugur'tha  was  given  up,  being  drawn  into  an  ambuscade 
by  the  specious  pretences  of  his  ally,  who  deluded  him  by 
desiring  a  conference  ;  and  being  made  a  prisoner,  he  was 
loaded  with  chains,  and  carried  by  Ma'rius  to  Rome,  a  de- 
plorable instance  of  blighted  ambition.  22.  He  did  not  long 
survive  his  overthrow,  being  condemned  by  the  senate  to  be 
starved  to  death  in  prison,  a  short  time  after  he  had  been 
made  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.! 

*  It  has  been  said  with  great  truth,  that  "  the  wicked  have  no  friends." 
Jugur'tha  experienced  this.  Bomil'car,  who  professed  the  warmest  at- 
tachment to  Jugur'tha,  was  gained  over  by  the  proconsul  Metel'lus  to 
persuade  his  master,  that  submission  to  the  Romans  was  absolutely  ne- 
cessary. Jugur'tha  accordingly  sent  an  embassy  to  the  proconsul,  pro- 
fessing his  readiness  to  submit  to  any  terms.  Upon  this  he  was  required 
to  send  to  the  Romans  200,000  pounds  weight  of  silver,  all  his  elephants, 
a  certain  number  of  horses  and  arms,  and  all  deserters.  The  king  com- 
plied exactly  with  these  hard  conditions ;  but  after  thus  weakening  his 
resources,  he  found  himself  still  obliged  to  continue  the  war,  or  submit 
to  such  farther  impositions  as  would  have  endangered,  not  only  hid 
crown,  but  his  life. 

f  Never  did  any  one  more  deservedly  suffer  than  this  treacherous  and 
cruel  man. 


THE   COMMONWEALTH.  179 

23.  Ma'rius,  by  this  and  two  succeeding  victories  over 
the  Gauls,  having  become  very  formidable  to  distant  nations 
in  war,  became  soon  after  much  more  dangerous  to  his  fel- 
low-citizens in  peace.  24.  The  strength  which  he  had  given 
to  the  popular  party  every  day  grew  more  conspicuous,  and 
the  Italians,  being  frustrated  by  the  intrigues  of  the  senate 
in  their  aims  of  gaining  the  freedom  of  Rome,  resolved  upon 
obtaining  by  force,  what  was  refused  them  as  a  favour. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  Social  War,  in  which  most  of  the 
states  of  Italy  entered  into  a  confederacy  against  Rome,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  redress  of  their  grievances. 

25.  After  a  lapse  of  two  years,  this  war  having  continued 
to  rage  with  doubtful  success,  the  senate  began  to  reflect 
that,  whether  conquered  or  conquerors,  the  power  of  the 
Romans  was  in  danger  of  being  destroyed.  26.  To  soften, 
therefore,  their  compliance  by  degrees,  they  began  by  giv- 
ing the  freedom  of  the  city  to  such  of  the  Italian  states  as 
had  not  revolted.  They  then  offered  it  to  .such  as  would  lay 
down  their  arms.  27.  This  unexpected  bounty  had  its  ef- 
fect ;  the  allies,  with  mutual  distrust,  offered  each  a  separate 
treaty ;  the  senate  took  them  one  by  one  into  favour,  but 
gave  the  freedom  of  the  city  in  such  a  manner,  that,  not  be- 
ing empowered  to  vote  until  all  the  other  tribes  had  given 
their  suffrages,  they  had  very  little  weight  in  the  constitu- 
tion. 

28.  This  destructive  war  being  concluded,  the  senate  be- 
gan to  think  of  turning  tljeir  arms  against  Mithrida'tes,  the 
most  powerful  and  warlike  monarch  of  the  east.*  29.  For 
this  expedition  Ma'rius  had  long  been  preparing,  but  Sylla 
had  interest  enough  to  get  himself  appointed  to  the  expe- 
dition. Ma'rius,  however,  tried  all  his  arts  with  the  people 
to  get  his  appointment  reversed ;  and  the  command  of  the 
army,  intended  to  oppose  Mithrida'tes,  was  ordered  to  be 
transferred  from  Sylla  to  Ma'rius.  30.  In  consequence  of  this, 
Ma'rius  immediately  sent  officers  from  Rome,  to  take  the  com- 
mand in  his  name.  But  instead  of  being  obeyed,  the  officers 
were  slain,  and  Sylla  was  entreated  by  the  army  to  lead 
them  directly  to  take  signal  vengeance  upon  all  his  enemies 
at  Rome. 

31.  Accordingly,  his  soldiers  entered  the  city  sword  in 

*  This  king  incurred  the  resentment  of  the  Romans  by  making  war 
on  some  of  their  allies,  and  by  putting  Op'pius  and  Aquil'ius  to  death. 
Upbraiding  the  Romans  with  their  avarice  and  corruption,  he  caused 
melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  the  throat  of  the  latter. 


180  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

hand,  as  a  place  taken  by  storm.  Ma'rius  and  Sulpi'cius,  at 
the  head  of  a  tumultuary  body  of  their  partisans,  attempted 
to  oppose  their  entrance  ;  and  the  citizens  themselves,  who 
feared  the  sackage  of  the  place,  threw  down  stones  and  tiles 
from  the  houses  upon  the  intruders.  32.  So  unequal  a  con- 
flict lasted  longer  than  could  have  been  expected  ;  at  length 
Ma'rius  and  his  party  were  obliged  to  seek  safety  by  flight, 
after  having  vainly  offered  liberty  to  the  slaves  who  would 
assist  them. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Was  this  internal  degeneracy  of  the  Roman  people  accompanied  by 

ill  success  abroad  1 

2.  What  signal  victory  did  they  obtain,  and  who  was  Jugurtha? 

3.  By  what  means  did  he  obtain  the  crown  1 

4.  How  did  he  propitiate  the  Romans  1 

5.  How  did  these  commissoners  discharge  their  trust  1 

6.  Was  Jugurtha  satisfied  with  this  allotment  1 

7.  Did  this  answer  his  purpose  1 

8.  Did  the  Romans  suffer  this  treachery  to  pass  unpunished  ? 

9.  Did  Jugurtha  obey  this  summons  ? 

10.  Were  hostilities  commenced  against  him,  and  what  was  the  result  1 

11.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  army  when  Metellus  assumed  the 

command  1 

12.  Did  this  deplorable  state  continue? 

13.  Did  Metellus  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  victories  t 

14.  Who  was  Caius  Marius  ? 

15.  What  resolution  did  he  adopt  ? 

1 6.  By  what  artifices  did  he  succeed  in  his  design  ? 

17.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Marius  in  his  new  command  1 

18.  To  whom  did  Jugurtha  have  recourse  in  his  extremity  ? 

19.  Did  Bocchus  continue  to  befriend  Jugurtha  1 

20.  Was  his  request  complied  with  1 

21.  Did  Bocchus  submit  to  this  condition? 

22.  What  became  of  Jugurtha  after  this? 

23.  How  did  Marius  conduct  himself  after  his  victories  ? 

24.  What  was  the  consequence  of  his  attempts  at  popularity  t 

25.  Was  this  war  of  long  continuance  ? 

26.  What  measure  did  the  senate  adopt  to  end  it  1 

27.  -What  was  the  consequence  of  this  measure  ? 

28.  Against  whom  did  the  senate  next  turn  their  arms  1 

29.  Who  was  appointed  to  command  this  expedition  ? 

30.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  order  ? 

31.  Did  Sylla  comply  with  their  request  ? 
82.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  contest 7 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  181 


Miriui  lilting  among  the  Rums  of  Carthage. 

SECTION  II. 

1.  SYLLA,  now  finding  himself  master  of  the  city,  began 
by  modelling  the  laws  so  as  to  favour  his  outrages ;  while 
Ma'rius,  driven  out  of  Rome  and  declared  a  public  enemy 
at  the  age  of  seventy,  was  obliged  to  save  himself,  unattend- 
ed and  on  foot,  .from  the  pursuit  of  those  who  sought  his 
life.  2.  After  having  wandered  for  some  time  in  this  de- 
plorable condition,  he  found  every  day  his  dangers  increase, 
and  his  pursuers  making  nearer  advances.  In  this  distress 
he  concealed  himself  'in  the  marshes  of  Mintur'nae,  where 
he  continued  a  night  up  to  the  chin  in  a  quagmire.  3.  At 
break  of  day  he  left  this  dismal  place,  and  made  towards  the 
seaside,  in  hopes  of  finding  a  ship  to  facilitate  his  escape ; 
but  being  known  and  discovered  by  some  of  the  inhabitants, 
he  was  conducted  to  a  neighbouring  town,  with  a  halter 
round  his  neck,  without  clothes,  and  covered  with  mud  ;  and 
in  this  condition  was  sent  to  prison.  4.  The  governor  of 
the  place,  willing  to  conform  to  the  orders  of  the  senate, 
soon  after  sent  a  Cim'brian  slave  to  despatch  him  ;  but  the 
barbarian  no  sooner  entered  the  dungeon  for  this  purpose 
than  he  stopped  short,  intimidated  by  the  dreadful  visage 
and  awful  voice  of  the  fallen  general,  who  sternly  demand- 
ed if  he  had  the  presumption  to  kill  Ca'ius  Ma'rius  ?  The 
slave,  unable  to  reply,  threw  down  his  sword,  and  rushing 
back  from  the  prision,  cried  out,  that  he  found  it  impossible 
to  kill  him  !  5.  The  governor,  considering  the  fear  of  the 
slave  as  an  omen  in  the  unhappy  exile's  favour,  gave  him 

Q  ' 


182  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

his  freedom  ;  and,  commending  him  to  his  fortune,  provid- 
ed him  with  a  ship  to  convey  him  from  Italy.  6.  He  was 
forced  by  a  tempest  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.  A  Roman  quaes- 
tor, who  happened  to  be  there,  resolved  to  seize  him  ;  and 
he  lost  sixteen  of  his  crew,  who  were  killed  in  their  en- 
deavours to  cover  his  retreat  to  the  ship.  He  afterwards 
landed  in  Africa,  near  Carthage,  and,  overwhelmed  with 
melancholy,  sat  himself  down  amongst  the  ruins  of  that 
desolate  place.  He  soon,  however,  had  orders  from  the  prae- 
tor to  retire.  7.  Marius,  who  remembered  his  having  once 
served  this  very  man  in  necessity,  could  not  suppress  his 
indignation  at  finding  ingratitude  every  where :  and,  pre- 
paring to  obey,  bid  the  messenger  tell  his  master,  that  he 
had  seen  Ma'rius  sitting  among  the  ruins  of  Carthage  ;  inti- 
mating the  greatness  of  his  fall,  by  the  desolation  that  was 
around  him.  8.  He  once  more  embarked,  and  not  know- 
ing where  to  land  without  encountering  an  enemy,  he  spent 
the  winter  at  sea,  expecting  every  hour  the  return  of  a  mes- 
senger from  his  son,  whom  he  had  sent  to  solicit  protection 
from  the  African  prince,  Mandras'tal.  9.  After  long  expec- 
tation, instead  of  the  messenger,  his  son  himself  arrived, 
having  escaped  from  the  inhospitable  court  of  that  monarch, 
where  he  had  been  kept,  not  as  a  friend,  but  as  a  prisoner;; 
and  had  returned  just  time  enough  to  prevent  his  father  from 
sharing  the  same  fate. 

10.  In  this  situation  they  were  informed  that  Cinna,  one 
of  their  party  who  had  remained  at  Rome,  had  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  collected  out  of  the  Italian 
states,  who  had  espoused  his  cause.  Nor  was  it  long  before 
they  joined  their  forces  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  Sylla  was 
at  that  time  absent  in  his  command  against  Mithri 'dates. 
11.  Cinna  marched  into  the  city  ;  but  Ma'rius  stopped,  and 
refused  to  enter,  alleging,  that  having  been  banished  by  a 
public  decree,  it  was  necessary  to  have  another  to  authorise 
his  return.  It  was  thus  that  he  desired  to  give  his  meditated 
cruelties  the  appearance  of  justice ;  and  while  he  was  about 
to  destroy  thousands,  to  pretend  an  implicit  veneration  for 
the  laws.  12.  An  assembly  of  the  people  being  called,  they 
began  to  reverse  his  banishment ;  but  they  had  scarcely 
gone  through  three  of  the  tribes,  when,  incapable  of  re- 
straining his  desire  of  revenge,  he  entered  the  city  at  the 
head  of  his  guards,  and  massacred  all  who  had  been  obnox- 
ious to  him,  without  remorse  or  pity.  13.  Several  who 
sought  to  propitiate  the  tyrant's  rage,  were  murdered  by 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  183 

his  command  in  his  presence  ;  many  even  of  those  who  had 
never  offended  him  were  put  to  death ;  and,  at  last,  even 
his  own  officers  never  approached  him  but  with  terror.  14. 
Having  in  this  manner  satiated  his  revenge,  he  next  abro- 
gated all  the  laws  which  were  enacted  by  his  rival,  and  then 
made  himself  consul  with  Cinna.  15.  Thus  gratified  in 
his  two  favourite  passions,  vengeance  and  ambition,  having 
once  saved  his  country,  and  now  deluged  it  with  blood,  at 
last,  as  if  willing  to  crown  the  pile  of  slaughter  which  he 
had  made,  with  his  own  body,  he  died  the  month  after,  not 
without  suspicion  of  having  hastened  his  end. 

16.  In  the  mean  time   these  accounts   were  brought  to 
Sylla,  who  had  been  sent  against  Mithrida'tes,  and  who  was 
performing  many  signal  exploits  against  him ;   hastily  con- 
cluding a  peace,  therefore,  he  returned  home  to  take  ven- 
geance on  his  enemies  at  Rome. 

17.  Nothing  could  intimidate  Cinna  from  attempting  to 
repel  his  opponent.     Being  joined  by  Car'bo,  (now  elected 
in  the  room  of  Vale'rius,  who  had  been  slain)  together 
with  young  Ma'rius,  who  inherited  all  the  abilities  and  the 
airbition  of  his  father,  he  determined  to  send  over  part  of 
th3  forces  he  had  raised  in  Dalma'tia  to  oppose  Sylla  before 
he  entered  Italy.     Some  troops  were  accordingly  embarked  ; 
but  being  dispersed  by  a  storm,  the  others  that  had  not  yet 
put  to  sea,  absolutely  refused  to  go.     18.  Upon  this,  Cinna, 
quite  furious  at  their  disobedience,  rushed  forward  to  per 
suade  them  to  their  duty.     In  the  mean  time  one  of  the 
most  mutinous  of  the  soldiers  being  struck  by  an  officer,  re- 
turned the  blow,  and  was  apprehended  for  his  crime.    This 
ill-timed  severity  produced  a  tumult  and  a  mutiny  through 
the  whole  army ;  and,  while  Cinna  did  all  he  could  to  ap- 
pease it,  he  was  run  through  the  body  by  one  of  the  crowd. 

19.  Scip'io,  the  consul,  who  commanded  against  Sylla, 
was  soon  after  allured  by  proposals  for  a  treaty ;  but  a 
suspension  of  arms  being  agreed  upon,  Sylla's  soldiers  went 
into  the  opposite  camp,  displaying  those  riches  which  they 
had  acquired  in  their  expeditions,  and  offering  to  participate 
with  their  fellow-citizens,  in  case  they  changed  their  party. 
20.  In  consequence  of  tin's  the  whole  army  declared  unani- 
mously for  Sylla ;  and  Scip'io  scarcely  knew  that  he  was 
forsaken  and  deposed,  till  he  was  informed  of  it  by  a  party 
of  the  enemy,  who,  entering  his  tent,  made  him  and  his  son 
prisoners. 

21.    In  this   manner  both  factions,  exasperated   to   the 


184  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

highest  degree,  and  expecting  no  mercy  on  either  part,  gave 
vent  to  their  fury  in  several  engagements.  The  forces  on 
the  side  of  young  Ma'rius,  who  now  succeeded  his  father  in 
command,  were  the  most  numerous,  but  those  of  Sylla  bet- 
ter united,  and  more  under  subordination.  22.  Carbo,  who 
commanded  for  Ma'rius  in  the  field,  sent  eight  legions  to 
Praenes'te,  to  relieve  his  colleague,  but  they  were  met  by 
Pompey,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Great,  in  a  defile,  who 
slew  many  of  them,  and  dispersed  the  rest.  Carbo  soon  after 
engaged  Metel'lus,  but  was  overcome,  with  the  loss  of  ten 
thousand  slain,  and  six  thousand  taken  prisoners.  23.  In 
consequence,  Urba'nus,  one  of  the  consuls,  killed  himself, 
and  Carbo  fled  to  Africa,  where,  after  Avandering  a  long 
time,  he  was  at  last  delivered  up  to  Pompey,  who,  to  please 
Sylla,  ordered  him  to  be  beheaded.  24.  Sylla,  now  become 
undisputed  master  of  his  country,  entered  Rome  at  the  head 
of  his  army.  Happy,  had  he  supported  in  peace  the  glory 
which  he  had  acquired  in  war ;  or,  had  he  ceased  to  live 
when  he  ceased  to  conquer ! 

25.  Eight  thousand  men,  who  had  escaped  the  general 
carnage,  surrendered  themselves  to  the  conqueror ;  he  or- 
dered them  to  be  put  into  the  Villa  Pub'lica,  a  large  house 
in  the  Campus  Mar'tius;  and,  at  the  same  time,  convoked 
the  senate  :  there,  without  discovering  the  least  emotion,  he 
spoke  with  great  fluency  of  his  own  exploits,  and,  in  the 
mean  time,  gave  private  directions  that  all  those  wretches 
whom  he  had  confined,  should  be  slain.  26.  The  senate, 
amazed  at  the  horrid  outcries  of  the  sufferers,  at  first  thought 
that  the  city  was  given  up  to  plunder ;  but  Sylla,  with  an 
unembarrassed  air,  informed  them,  that  it  was  only  some 
criminals  who  were  punished  by  his  order,  and  that  the 
senate  ought  not  to  make  themselves  uneasy  at  their  fate. 
27.  The  day  after  he  proscribed  forty  senators,  and  sixteen 
hundred  knights ;  and  after  an  intermission  of  two  days, 
forty  senators  more,  with  an  infinite  number  of  the  richest 
citizens. 

28.  He  next  resolved  to  invest  himself  with  the  dictator- 
ship, and  that  for  a  perpetuity ;  and  thus  uniting  all  civil  as 
well  as  military  power  in  his  own  person,  he  thought  he 
might  thence  give  an  air  of  justice  to  every  oppression. 

29.  Thus  he  continued  to  govern  with  capricious  tyranny, 
none  daring  to  resist  his  power,  until,  contrary  to  the  expec 
tation  of  all  mankind,  he  laid  down  the  dictatorship,  after 
having  held  it  not  quite  three  years. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  185 


Sylii  reproaching  the  little  image  of  Apollo  with  b'u  defeat. 

30.  After  this,  he  retired  into  the  country,  and  abandon- 
ed himself  to  debauchery ;  but  he  did  not  long  survive  his 
abdication ;  he  was  seized  with  a  horrible  distemper,  and 
died  a  loathsome  and  mortifying  object,  and  a  melancholy 
proof  of  the  futility  of  human  ambition.* 

The  character  of  Sylla  exhibits  a  singular  compound  of 
great  and  mean  qualities.  Superstition  was  one  of  its  fea- 
tures. It  is  said  that  having  suffered  a  defeat  in  the  course 
of  the  Social  War,  in  Italy,  he  drew  from  his  bosom  a  little 
image  of  Apollo,  which  he  had  stolen  from  the  temple  of 
Delphi,  and  had  ever  since  carried  about  him  when  engaged 
in  war.  Kissing  it  with  great  devotion,  he  expostulated 
with  the  god,  for  having  brought  him  to  perish  dishonour- 
ably, with  his  countrymen,  at  the  gates  of  his  native  city,  af- 
ter having  raised  him  by  many  victories  to  such  a  height  of 
glory  and  greatness. 

*  Two  events,  important  in  the  history  of  Rome,  occurred  about  this 
time.  Serto'rius,  a  Roman  general,  in  Spain,  had  rebelled  against  the 
government  of  Syl'la,  and  defeated  every  army  sent  against  him,  till 
Pompey  took  the  command  ;  and  even  then  the  result  appeared  doubtful, 
till  Serto'rius,  being  assassinated  by  his  own  officers  put  an  end  to  the 
war. 

Spar'tacus,  a  gladiator,  having  escaped  from  confinement,  and  assem- 
bled a  number  of  his  followers,  commenced  what  is  called  the  second 
Servile  War.  His  army  gradually  increasing,  he  became  a  formidable 
enemy  to  the  Roman  state ;  overthrew  the  prsetors  and  consuls  sent 
•  him ;  but  was  at  length  defeated  by  Crassus,  and  the  remains 
of  his  army  cut  in  pieces  bv  Pompey,  who  met  tlu-m  on  liis  return  from 
Spain. 


186  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  were  the  first  acts  of  Sylla  7       2.  What  became  of  Marius  7 

3.  To  what  dangers  was  he  exposed  1 

4.  Was  an  attempt  made  on  his  life  1 

5.  How  did  the  governor  treat  the  fugitive  general  1 

6.  What  ingratitude  was  shown  to  Marius  7 

7.  What  was  his  reply  7 

8.  From  what  African  prince  did  he  ask  aid  1 

9.  Was  it  granted  1 

10.  What  opportunity  was  taken  by  the  Marian  party  to  renew  the 

struggle  7 

1 1.  To  what  scruple  did  Marius  pretend! 

12.  What  proves  it  a  pretence  7 

13.  What  cruelties  were  practised  by  Marius  7 

14.  What  laws  did  he  change  7    15.  How  did  Marius  die  7 

1 6.  How  did  Sylla  act  when  he  learned  the  news  of  the  change  7 

1 7.  What  caused  a  tumult  in  Cinna's  army  7 

18.  How  did  it  end  7 

19.  What  artifice  was  practised  on  Scipio  1 
SO.  What  was  the  result  7 

21.  Describe  the  relative  condition  of  the  rival  forces  7 

22.  Did  Pompey  obtain  any  victory  1 

23.  What  was  the  consequence  7 

24.  Which  faction  finally  prevailed  7 

25.  What  massacre  was  perpetrated  by  Sylla  7 

2G.  How  did  he  excuse  it  7   27.  Were  these  his  only  cruelties  7 

28.  What  magistracy  did  Sylla  usurp  7 

29.  How  did  he  govern  7 

30.  In  what  manner  did  the  tyranny  of  Sylla  terminate  7 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

FROM     THE     PERPETUAL      DICTATORSHIP     OF     SYLLA,    TO     THB 
TRIUMVIRATE  OF  CAESAR,  POMPEY,  AND  CRASSUS. U.  C.  680. 

1.  UPON  the  death  of  Sylla,  the  jealousies  of  Pompey 
and  Crassus,  the  two  most  powerful  men  in  the  empire,  be- 
gan  to  excite  fresh    dissensions.     Pompey  was  the   most 
beloved  general,  but  Crassus  the  richest  man  in  Rome. 

2.  The  first  opportunity  that  was  offered  of  discovering 
their  mutual  jealousy,  was  upon   disbanding  their  troops 
Neither  chose  to  begin  ;  so  that  the  most  fatal  consequences 
were  likely  to  arise  from  their  dissension.     At  length  Cras- 
sus, stifling  his  resentment,  laid  down  his  command ;   and 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  187 

the  other  followed  his  example  immediately  after.  3.  The 
next  trial  between  them  was,  who  should  be  foremost  in  ob- 
taining the  favour  of  the  people.  Crassus  entertained  the 
populace  at  a  thousand  tables,  distributed  corn  to  the  fami- 
lies of  the  poor,  and  fed  the  greatest  part  of  the  citizens  for 
nearly  three  months.  Pompey,  on  the  other  hand,  laboured 
to  abrogate  the  laws  made  against  the  authority  of  the  peo- 
ple by  Sylla ;  restored  to  the  knights  the  power  of  judging, 
which  had  been  formerly  granted  them  by  Gracchus ;  and 
gave  back  to  the  tribunes  all  their  former  privileges.  4. 
Thus  each  gave  his  private  aims  an  appearance  of  zeal  for 
the  public  good ;  so  that  what  was  in  reality  ambition  in 
both,  look  with  one  the  name  of  liberality ;  with  the  other, 
that  of  a  love  of  freedom. 

5.  An  expedition,  in  which  Pompey  cleared  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  was  infested  by  pirates,  having  added  greatly 
to  his  reputation,  the  tribunes  of  the  people  hoped  it  would 
be  easy  to  advance  their  favourite  still  higher.  6.  Man'lius, 
therefore,  one  of  the  number,  preferred  a  law,  that  all  the 
armies  of  the  empire,  the  government  of  Asia,  and  the  man- 
agement of  the  war  which  was  renewed  against  Mithrida'tes, 
should  be  committed  to  Pompey  alone.  The  law  passed, 
with  little  opposition,  and  the  decree  was  confirmed. 

7.  Being  thus  appointed  to  the  command  of  that  import 
ant  war,  he  departed  for  Asia.  8.  Mithrida'tes  had  beei» 
obliged  by  Lucul'lus  to  take  refuge  in  Lesser  Armenia,  and 
thither  that  general  wns  preparing  to  follow  him,  when  his 
whole  army  abandoned  him  ;  so  that  it  remained  for  Pom- 
pey to  terminate  the  war,  which  he  effected  with  great  ease 
and  expedition,  adding  a  large  extent  of  dominion  to  the  Ro- 
man empire,  and  returning  to  Rome  in  triumph  at  the  head 
of  his  conquering  army. 

9.  But  the  victories  of  Pompey  rather  served  to  heighten 
the  glory  than  to  increase  the  power  of  Rome  ;  they  made 
it  more  a  glaring  object  of  ambition,  and  exposed  its  liber- 
ties to  greater  danger.  Those  liberties,  indeed,  seemed  de- 
voted to  ruin  on  every  side ;  for,  even  while  he  was  pur- 
suing his  conquests  abroad,  Rome  was  at  the  verge  of  ruin 
from  a  conspiracy  at  home.  10.  This  conspiracy  was  pro- 
jected and  carried  on  by  Ser'gius  Cat'iline,  a  patrician  by 
birth,  who  resolved  to  build  his  own  power  on  the  downfall 
of  his  country.  11.  He  was  singularly  formed,  both  by  art 
and  nature,  to  conduct  a  conspiracy :  he  was  possessed  of 
courage  equal  to  the  most  desperate  attempts,  and  of  clo- 


188  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

quence  to  give  a  colour  to  his  ambition  :  ruined  in  his  for- 
tunes, profligate  in  his  manners,  vigilant  in  pursuing  his 
aims,  he  was  insatiable  after  wealth,  only  with  a  view  to 
lavish  it  on  his  guilty  pleasures.  12.  Cat'iline  having  con- 
tracted debts  in  consequence  of  such  an  ill-spent  life,  was 
resolved  to  extricate  himself  from  them  by  any  means,  how- 
ever unlawful.  Accordingly,  he  assembled  about  thirty  of 
his  debauched  associates,  and  informed  them  of  his  aims, 
his  hopes,  and  his  settled  plans  of  operations.  13.  It  was 
resolved  among  them,  that  a  general  insurrection  should  be 
raised  throughout  Italy,  the  different  parts  of  which  he  as- 
signed to  different  leaders.  Rome  was  to  be  fired  at  several 
places  at  once  ;  and  Cat'iline,  at  the  head  of  an  army  raised 
in  Etru'ria,  was,  in  the  general  confusion,  to  possess  him- 
self of  the  city,  and  massacre  all  the  senators.  Len'tulus, 
one  of  his  profligate  assistants,  who  had  been  praetor,  or 
judge  in  the  city,  was  to  preside  in  their  general  councils  ; 
Cethe'gus,  a  man  who  sacrificed  the  possession  of  great  pre- 
sent power  to  the  hopes  of  gratifying  his  revenge  against 
Cicero,*  was  to  direct  the  massacre  through  the  city ;  and 
Cas'sius  was  to  conduct  those  who  fired  it. 

14.  But  the  vigilance  of  Ci'cero  being  the  chief  obstacle 
to  their  designs,  Catiline  was  very  desirous  to  see  him  taken 
off  before  he  left  Rome ;  upon  which  two  knights  of  the 
company  undertook  to  kill  him  the  next  morning  in  his  bed, 
in  an  early  visit,  on  pretence  of  business.  15.  But  the 
meeting  was  no  sooner  over,  than  Ci'cero  had  information 
of  all  that  passed  in  it ;  for,  by  the  intrigues  of  a  woman 
named  Ful'via,  he  had  gained  over  Cu'rius,  her  lover,  one 
of  the  conspirators,  to  send  him  a  punctual  account  of  all 
their  deliberations.  16.  Having  taken  proper  precautions 
to  guard  himself  against  the  designs  of  his  morning  visitors, 
who  were  punctual  to  the  appointment,  he  next  took  care 
to  provide  for  the  defence  of  the  city  ;  when,  assembling  the 
senate,  he  consulted  what  was  best  to  be  done  in  such  a  time 
of  danger.  17.  The  first  step  taken  was  to  offer  considera- 
ble rewards  for  farther  discoveries,  and  then  to  prepare  for 

*  Ci'cero,  the  first  of  Roman  orators,  as  Demos'thenes  was  of  the 
Greek,  was  bom  at  Arpin'urn,  a  town  of  the  Volsci,  and  studied  under 
the  most  celebrated  orators  and  philosophers  of  Greece.  His  style  of  elo- 
quence was  copious,  highly  ornamented,  and  addressed  more  to  the  pas- 
sions than  to  the  judgment  of  his  hearers.  He  was  consul  at  the  time 
of  Cat'iline's  conspiracy  ;  and,  for  his  eminent  services  in  detecting  and 
frustrating  it,  was  honoured  with  the  title  of  Pater  Parria. 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  189 


Curiot,  diicloiing  Citiline'i  compiracy  to  Fulvia. 

the  defence  of  the  state.  18.  Cat'iline,  to  show  how  well 
he  could  dissemble,  or  justify  any  crime,  went  boldly  to  the 
senate,  declaring  his  innocence  ;*  but,  when  confronted  by 
the  eloquence  of  Ci'cero,  he  hastily  withdrew,  declaring 
aloud,  that  since  he  was  denied  a  vindication  of  himself,  and 
driven  headlong  into  rebellion  by  his  enemies,  he  would  ex- 
tinguish the  flame  which  was  raised  about  him  in  universal 
ruin.  19.  After  a  short  conference  with  Len'tulus  and 
Cethe'gus,  he  left  Rome  by  night,  with  a  small  retinue,  to 
hasten  towards  Etru'ria,  where  Man'iius,  one  of  the  conspi- 
rators, was  raising  an  army  to  support  him.t 

20.  In  the  mean  time  Ci'cero  took  proper  precautions  to 
secure  all  those  of  the  conspiracy  who  remained  in  Rome. 
Len'tulus,  Cethe'gus,  Cas'sius,  and  several  others,  were  put 
into  confinement ;  and  soon  after  strangled  in  prison. 

21.  While  his  associates  were  put  to  deatli  in  the  city, 
Cat'iline  had  raised  an  army  of  twelve  thousand  men,  of 
which  a  fourth  part  only  were  completely  armed,  the  rest 
being   furnished  with   such  weapons   as   chance   afforded ; 
darts,  lances,  and  clubs.     22.  He  refused,  at  first,  to  enlist 
slaves,  who  flocked  to  him  in  great  numbers,  trusting  to  the 
strength  of  the  conspiracy;  but  upon  the  approach  of  the 
consul,  who  was  sent  against  him,  and  upon  the  arrival  of 
the  news  that  his  confederates  were  put  to  death,  the  face 

*  On  his  entrance,  the  senators  near  whom  he  attempted  to  seat  him- 
self, quitting  their  places,  left  him  quite  alone. 

•}•  On  his  arrival,  he  assumed  all  the  insignia  of  a  supreme  magistrate, 
being  preceded  by  lictors  carrying  the  axoe  and  fosces. 


190  HISTORY    OF    RUMK. 

of  affairs  altered.  23.  His  first  attempt,  therefore,  was,  by 
long  marches,  to  make  his  escape  over  the  Appenines  into 
Gaul ;  but  in  this  his  hopes  were  disappointed ;  all  the  passes 
being  guarded  by  an  army  superior  to  his  own.  24.  Being 
thus  hemmed  in  on  every  side,  and  seeing  all  things  despe- 
rate, with  nothing  left  him  but  either  to  die  or  conquer,  he 
resolved  to  make  one  vigorous  effort  against  that  army  which 
pursued  him.  Anto'nius,  the  consul,  being  sick,  the  com- 
mand devolved  upon  Petrei'us,  who,  after  a  fierce  and  bloody 
action  in  which  he  lost  a  considerable  part  of  his  best  troops, 
put  Cat'iline's  forces  to  the  rout,  and  destroyed  his  whole 
army.* 

25.  The  extinction  of  this  conspiracy  seemed  only  to 
leave  an  open  theatre  for  the  ambition  of  the  great  men  to 
display  itself  in.     Pompey  was  now  returned  in  triumph 
from  conquering  the  east,  as  he  had  before  been  victorious 
in  Europe  and  Africa. 

26.  Crassus  was  the  richest  man  in  Rome,  and  next  to 
Pompey,  possessed  the  greatest  authority ;  his  party  in  the 
senate  was  even  greater  than  that  of  his  rival,  and  the  envy 
raised  against  him  was  less.     He  and  Pompey  had  long 
been  disunited  by  an  opposition  of  interests  and  of  charac- 
ters ;  however,  it  was  from  a  continuance  of  their  mutual 
jealousies  that  the  state  was  in  some  measure  to  expect  its 
future  safety.     27.  It  was  in  this  situation  of  things  that 
Julius  Caesar,  who  had  lately  gone,  as  praetor,  into  Spain, 
and  had  returned  with  great  riches  and  glory,  resolved  to 
convert  their  mutual  jealousy  to  his  own  advantage.     28. 
This  celebrated  man  was  descended  from  popular  and  illus- 
trious  ancestors.     He   warmly  espoused    the   side   of  the 
people,  and  shortly  after  the  death  of  Sylla,  procured  tRe 
recal  of  those  whom  Sylla  had  banished.     He  had  all  along 
declared  for  the  populace  against  the  senate,  and  became 
their   most   favourite    magistrate.     29.    This    consummate 
statesman  began  by  offering  his  services  to  Pompey,  pro- 
mising to  assist  him  in  getting  all  his  acts  passed,  notwith- 
standing the  senate's  opposition.     Pompey,  pleased  at  the 
acquisition  of  a  person  of  so  much  merit,  readily  granted 
him  his  confidence  and  protection.     30.  He  next  applied  to 
Crassus,  who,  from  former  connections,  was  disposed  to  be- 
come still  more  nearly  his  friend.    31.  At  length,  finding  them 
not  averse  to  an  union  of  interests,  he  took  an  opportunity 

*  Cataline  himself,  finding  his  affairs  desperate,  threw  himself  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  there  found  the  death  he  sought.  (Sallust.) 


THE  COMMONWEALTH.  191 

of  bringing  them  together ;  and,  remonstrating  with  them 
on  the  advantages  as  well  as  the  necessity  of  a  reconciliation, 
he  had  art  enough  to  persuade  them  to  forget  former  ani- 
mosities. 32.  A  combination  was  thus  formed,  by  which 
they  agreed  that  nothing  should  be  done  in  the  common- 
wealth without  their  mutual  concurrence  and  approbation. 
This  was  called  the  first  Trium'virate,  by  which  we  find  the 
constitution  weakened  by  a  new  interest  which  had  not 
hitherto  taken  place,  very  different  from  that  of  the  senate 
or  the  people,  and  yet  dependent  on  both. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

\.  What  followed  on  the  death  of  Sylla? 

2.  What  first  discovered  their  mutual  jealousy  ? 

3.  What  was  the  next  trial  between  them  ? 

4.  Under  what  pretences  did  they  hide  their  real  views  1 

5.  What  farther  raised  the  reputation  of  Pompey  1 

6.  What  means  were  had  recourse  to  for  this  purpose  ? 

7.  8.  What  was  the  state  of  the  war  in  Asia  ? 

9.  What  were  the  consequences  of  Pompey 's  victories? 

10.  Who  was  the  author,  and  what  was  the  object  of  this  conspiracy? 

1 1.  What  wa«  the  character  of  Catiline  1 

12.  What  odpnoned  this  conspiracy  ? 

1 3.  How  was  it  to  be  carried  into  execution  ? 

14.  What  was  the  chief  obstacle  to  its  accomplishment,  and  Low  waa 

this  obstacle  to  be  removed  1 

15.  Was  Cicero  informed  of  their  proceedings? 

16.  What  precautions  did  he  take  in  consequence? 

17.  What  was  the  first  step  taken  ? 

18.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Catiline  on  this  occasion? 

19.  Did  he  continue  in  Rome  ? 

20.  Did  the  other  conspirators  escape  ? 

21.  How  was  Catiline  employed  in  the  mean  time? 

22.  Had  he  a  fair  prospect  of  success  .' 

23.  Did  he  boldly  face  his  opponents  ? 

24.  What  followed  ? 

25.  Did  the  extinction  of  this  conspiracy  give  peace  to  Rome  ? 

26.  Who  were  the  contending  parties,  and  what  was  the  consequence  of 

this  dissension  ? 

27.  Who  profited  by  these  jealousies  ? 

28.  Who  was  Julius  Caesar,  and  by  what  means  did  he  acquire  pop* 

laxity1? 

29.  What  was  his  first  step  towards  power  ? 

30.  To  whom  did  he  next  apply  ? 

31.  What  consequence  resulted  from  his  application? 

32.  What  agreement  was  entered  into  by  them,  and  what  were  thej 

called ! 


* 


192  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

SECTION  I. 

FROM    THE    BEGINNING    OF    THE    FIRST   TRIUMVIRATE,  TO  TUB 
DEATH    OF    POMPEY. U.  C.  094. 

1.  THE  first  thing  that  Caesar  did,  upon  forming  the 
Trium'virate,  was  to  avail  himself  of  the  interest  of  his  con 
federates  to  obtain  the  consulship.  2.  The  senate  had  still 
some  influence  left ;  and  though  they  were  obliged  to  con 
cur  in  choosing  him,  yet  they  gave  him  for  a  colleague  one 
Bib'ulus,  whom  they  supposed  would  be  a  check  upon  his 
power.  3.  But  the  opposition  was  too  strong  for  even 
superior  abilities  to  resist ;  so  that  Bib'ulus,  after  a  slight 
attempt  in  favour  of  the  senate,  remained  inactive.  4.  Caesar 
began  his  schemes  for  empire  by  ingratiating  himself  with 
the  people ;  he  procured  a  law  for  dividing  certain  lands  in 
Campa'nia  among  such  of  the  poor  citizens  as  had  at  least 
three  children.  This  proposal  was  just  enough  in  itself, 
and  it  was  criminal  only  from  the  views  of  the  proposer. 

5.  Having  thus  strengthened  himself  at  home,  he  deliber- 
ated with  his  confederates  about  sharing  the  foreign  pro- 
vinces of  the  empire.  6.  The  partition  was  soon  made : 
Pompey  chose  Spain ;  for,  being  fatigued  with  conquest, 
and  satiated  with  military  fame,  he  was  willing  to  take  his 
pleasures  at  Rome.  Crassus  chose  Syria ;  which  province, 
as  it  had  hitherto  enriched  the  generals  who  had  subdued  it, 
would,  he  hoped,  gratify  him  in  this  his  favourite  pursuit. 
To  Caesar  were  left  the  provinces  of  Gaul,  composed  of 
fierce  and  powerful  nations,  most  of  them  unsubdued,  and 
the  rest  only  professing  a  nominal  subjection.  7.  As  this 
was  appointing  him  rather  to  conquer  than  command,  the 
government  was  granted  him  for  five  years,  as  if  by  its  con- 
tinuance to  compensate  for  its  danger. 

8.  It  would  be  impossible,  in  this  narrow  compass,  to 
enumerate  the  battles  Caesar  fought,  and  the  states  he  sub- 
dued, in  his  expeditions  into  Gaul  and  Britain,  which  con- 
tinued eight  years.  9.  The  Helvetians*  were  the  first  that 
were  brought  into  subjection,  with  the  loss  of  nearly  two 

*  The  inhabitants  of  the  country  now  called  Switzerland. 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  193 


Cxnr  Undinj  in  BriUin. 

hundred  thousand  men;  those  who  remained  after  the  car- 
nage were  sent  by  Caesar  in  safety  to  the  forests  whence 
they  had  issued.*  10.  The  Germans,  with  Ariovis'tus  at  their 
head,  were  next  cut  off,  to  the  number  of  eighty  thousand  , 
their  monarch  himself  narrowly  escaping  in  a  little  boat 
across  the  Rhine.  The  Belgact  suffered  such  a  terrible  over- 
throw, that  marshes  and  rivers  were  rendered  impassable 
from  the  heaps  of  slain.  11.  The  Ner'vians,±  who  were 
the  most  warlike  of  those  barbarous  nations,  made  head  for 
a  short  time,  and  fell  upon  the  Romans  with  such  fury,  that 
their  army  was  in  danger  of  being  utterly  routed  ;  but  Caesar 
himself,  nastily  catching  up  a  buckler,  rushed  through  his 
troops  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy ;  by  which  means  he  so 
turned  the  fate  of  the  day,  that  the  barbarians  were  all  cut 
off  to  a  man.  12.  The  Celtic  Gauls  were  next  brought 
under  subjection.  After  them,  the  Sue'vi,  the  Mena'pii,  and 
all  the  nations  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  British  sea. 
13.  Thence,  stimulated  by  the  desire  of  conquest,  he  crossed 
over  into  Britain,  upon  pretence  that  the  natives  had  fur- 
nished his  enemies  with  continual  supplies.  14.  Upon 
approaching  the  shores,  he  found  them  covered  with  men  to 
oppose  his  landing,  and  his  forces  were  in  danger  of  being 

*  The  Helvetians,  finding  their  country  too  narrow  for  their  increased 
population,  had  determined  on  emigration.  Being  denied  by  Coesar  a 
<•  through  his  piovince,  hostilities  commenced,  which  terminated 
as  above.  (Casar  de  Bel.  Gal.) 

•(•  Inhabitants  of  the  country  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Loire. 

\  Inhabitants  of  the  modern  province  of  Hainault.          ft 

R 


194  HISTORY   OF   ROME 

driven  hack,  till  the  standard-hearer  of  the  tenth  legion 
boldly  leapt  ashore,  and  being  well  assisted  by  Caesar,  the 
natives  were  put  to  flight.  15.  The  Britons  being  terrified 
at  Caesar's  power,  sent  to  desire  a  peace,  which  was  granted 
them,  and  some  hostages  delivered.  A  storm,  however,  soon 
after  destroying  great  part  of  his  fleet,  they  resolved  to  take 
advantage  of  the  disaster,  and  marched  against  him  with  a 
powerful  army.  But  what  could  naked  undisciplined  troops 
do  against  forees  that  had  been  exercised  under  the  greatest 
generals,  and  hardened  by  the  conquest  of  the  greatest  part 
of  the  world  ?  Being  overthrown,  they  were  obliged  once 
more  to  sue  for  peace.  Caesar  granted  it,  and  returned  to 
the  continent. 

16.  While  Caesar  was  thus  increasing  his  reputation  and 
riches  abroad,  Pompey,  who  remained  in  Rome,  steadily 
co-operated  with  his  ambition,  and  advanced  his  interests, 
while  he  vainly  supposed  he  was  forwarding  his  own.  By 
this  means  Caesar  was  continued  five  years  longer  in  Gaul. 
17  Nor  was  Pompey  roused  from  his  lethargy  till  the  fame 
of  that  great  commander's  valour,  riches,  and  humanity, 
began  to  make  him  suspect  they  would  soon  eclipse  his 
own.  18.  He  now  therefore  did  all  in  his  power  to  dimin- 
ish Caesar's  reputation  ;  obliging  the  magistrates  not  to  pub- 
lish any  letters  they  received  till  he  had  diminished  the 
credit  of  them,  by  spreading  disadvantageous  reports.  19. 
One  or  two  accidents,  also,  helped  to  widen  the  separation ; 
namely,  the  death  of  Julia,*  Pompey's  wife,  who  had  not 
a  little  contributed  to  improve  the  harmony  that  subsisted 
between  them ;  and  the  destruction  of  Crassus,  who  had 
conducted  the  war  against  the  Parthians  with  so  little  pru- 
dence, that  he  suffered  them  to  get  the  advantage  of  him  in 
almost  every  skirmish  ;  when,  incapable  of  extricating  him- 
self, he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  his  own  rashness  in  trusting  himself 
to  a  perfidious  enemy.t 

It  was  at  this  period  that  T.  Maurius  Milo,  being  a  can- 
didate for  the  office  of  consul,  during  the  heat  of  the  can- 
vassing happened,  when  riding  into  the  country,  to  meet 
Clodius,  a  turbulent  man,  who  favoured  his  opponent.  The 
meeting  was  accidental,  but  a  skirmish  between  heir  at- 

*   She  was  the  daughter  of  Caesar. 

j-  Crassus  was  inveigled  into  the  power  of  Surena,  the  Parthian 
general,  under  the  pretence  of  treating  lor  peace.  His  head  was  cut 
off  and  sent  to  Orodes,  the  king  of  Parthia,  who  poured  molten  gold 
down  his  throat. 


THK    COMMONWEALTH. 


Eiposure  of  Olodini'i  bod;  in  (be  Forom. 

lendants  drew  on  a  contest  which  terminated  in  the  death 
of  Clodius.  The  body  was  brought  into  Rome  where  it 
was  exposed,  all  covered  with  blood  and  wounds,  to  the 
view  of  the  populace,  who  flocked  around  it  in  crowds  to 
lament  the  miserable  fate  of  their  leader.  The  next  day 
the  mob,  headed  by  a  kinsman  of  the  deceased,  carried  the 
body,  with  the  wounds  exposed,  into  the  forum ;  and  the 
enemies  of  Milo,  addressing  the  crowd  with  inflammatory 
speeches,  wrought  them  up  to  such  a  frenzy  that  they  car- 
ried the  body  into  the  senate-house,  and,  tearing  up  the 
benches  and  tables,  made  a  funeral  pile,  and,  together  with 
the  body,  burnt  the  house  itself,  and  then  stormed  the  house 
of  Milo,  but  were  repulsed.  This  violence,  and  the  elo- 
quence of  Cicero  in  his  defence,  saved  Milo  from  the  pun- 
ishment which  he  had  good  reason  to  fear  for  the  assassina- 
tion of  Clodius. 

20.  Caesar,  who  now  began  to  be  sensible  of  the  jealousies 
of  Pompey,  took  occasion  to  solicit  for  the  consulship,  to- 
gether with  a  prolongation  of  his  government  in  Gaul,  de- 
sirous of  trying  whether  Pompey  would  thwart  or  promote 
his  pretensions.  21.  In  this  Pompey  seemed  to  be  quite 
inactive ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  privately  employed  two  of 
his  creatures,  who  alleged  in  the  senate  that  the  laws  did 
not  permit  a  person  who  was  absent  to  offer  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  that  high  office.  22.  Pompey's  view  in  this 
was  to  allure  Caesar  from  his  government,  in  order  to  stand 
for  the  consulship  in  person.  23.  Caesar,  hoAvever,  per  • 


196  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

ceiving  his  artifice,  chose  to  remain  in  his  province,  con- 
vinced that  while  he  headed  an  army  devoted  to  him,  he 
could  give  law  as  well  as  magistrates  to  the  state. 

24.  The  senate,  which  was  devoted  to  Pompey,  because 
he  had  for  some  time  attempted  to  defend  them  from  the 
encroachments  of  the  people,  ordered  home  the  two  legions 
which  were  in  Caesar's  army  belonging  to  Pompey,  as  it 
was  pretended,  to  oppose  the  Parthians,  but  in  reality  to 
diminish  Ceesar's  power.  25.  Caesar  saw  their  motive :  but 
as  his  plans  were  not  yet  ripe  for  execution,  he  sent  them 
home  in  pursuance  of  the  orders  of  the  senate,  having  pre- 
viously attached  the  officers  to  him  by  benefits,  and  the 
soldiers  by  bounties.  26.  The  next  step  the  senate  took, 
was  to  recall  Caesar  from  his  government,  as  his  time  was 
very  near  expiring.  But  Cu'rio,  his  friend  in  the  senate, 
proposed  that  Caesar  should  not  leave  his  army  till  Pompey 
had  set  him  the  example.  27.  This  for  a  while  perplexed 
Pompey;  however,  during  the  debate,  one  of  the  senate 
declaring  that  Cassar  had  passed  the  Alps,  and  was  marching 
with  his  whole  army  directly  towards  Rome,  the  consul, 
immediately  quitting  the  senate,  went  with  his  colleagues  to 
a  house  where  Pompey  at  that  time  resided.  He  there  pre- 
sented him  with  a  sword,  commanding  him  to  march  against 
Caesar,  and  fight  in  defence  of  the  commonwealth.  28 
Pompey  declared  he  was  ready  to  obey,  but  with  an  air 
pretended  moderation  added,  that  it  was  only  in  case  nu 
gentle  expedients  could  not  be  employed.  29.  Caesar,  who 
was  instructed  in  all  that  passed,  though  he  was  still  in 
Gaul,  was  willing  to  give  his  aims  all  the  appearance  of 
justice.  He  agreed  to  lay  down  his  employment  when 
Pompey  should  do  the  same.  But  the  senate  rejected  his 
propositions,  blindly  confident  of  their  power,  and  relying 
on  the  assurances  of  Pompey.  Caesar,  still  unwilling  to 
come  to  an  open  rupture  with  the  state,  at  last  was  content 
to  ask  the  government  of  Illyr'ia,  with  two  legions  ;  but  this 
also  was  refused  him.  30.  Finding  all  attempts  at  an  ac- 
commodation fruitless,  and  conscious,  if  not  of  the  goodness 
of  his  cause,  at  least  of  the  goodness  of  his  troops,  he  began 
to  draw  them  down  towards  the  confines  of  Italy ;  and 
passing  the  Alps  with  his  third  legion,  stopped  at  Raven'na, 
whence  he  once  more  wrote  to  the  consuls,  declaring  that 
lie  was  ready  to  resign  all  command  in  case  Pompey  would 
do  so.  31.  On  the  other  hand,  the  senate  decreed,  thai 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  197 

Caesar  should  lay  down  his  government,  and  disband  his 
forces  within  a  limited  time ;  and,  if  he  refused  obedience, 
that  he  should  be  declared  an  enemy  to  the  common- 
wealth. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  Caesar's  first  act  after  the  Triumvirate  had  been  formed! 

2.  Whom  did  the  senate  appoint  as  Caesar's  colleague,  and  why  1 

3.  Had  Bibulus  any  controul  over  Caesar? 

4.  How  did  Caesar  commence  his  schemes  ? 

5.  How  did  he  farther  promote  his  views  ? 

6.  How  were  the  provinces  allotted  ? 

7.  8.  Was  Casar's  a  desirable  allotment! 

9.  Who  were  the  first  that  submitted  to  Caesar's  arms  ? 

10.  Who  were  the  next? 

11.  Who  made  the  most  formidable  resistance? 

12.  What  other  nations  were  subdued  by  Caesar  ? 

13.  Did  these  conquests  content  him? 

14.  What  opposition  did  he  experience  on  the  British  coast  1 

15.  What  followed  this  defeat? 

1 6.  In  what  way  were  Caesar's  views  promoted  ? 

17.  Did  not  Pompey  suspect  his  intentions? 

18.  When  undeceived,  what  measures  did  he  pursue? 

19.  What  contributed  to  widen  the  breach? 

20.  How  did  Caesar  ascertain  the  disposition  of  Pompey  towards  him ! 

21.  Did  Pompey  take  an  active  part? 

22.  What  was  Pompey's  view  in  this? 

23.  Did  Caesar  fall  into  the  snare  ? 

24.  Which  side  did  the  senate  favour? 

25.  Did  Caesar  give  up  the  legions? 

26.  What  was  the  next  step  they  took? 

27.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  proposal  ? 

28.  Did  Pompey  obey  this  command? 

29.  What  was  Caesar's  conduct  on  this  occasion? 

30.  How  did  he  next  proceed? 

31.  What  measure  did  the  senate  adopt  ? 


SECTION  II. 


1.  C.ESA.JI,  however,  seemed  no  way  disturbed  at  these 
violent  proceedings  ;  the  night  before  his  intended  expedition 
into  Italy,  he  sat  down  to  table  cheerfully,  conversing  with 
his  friends  on  subjects  of  literature  and  philosophy  ;  and 
apparently  disengaged  from  every  ambitious  concern.  After 


198  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

some  time,  rising  up,  he  desired  the  company  to  make  them- 
selves joyous  in  his  absence,  and  that  he  would  be  with 
them  in  a  moment :  in  the  mean  time,  having  ordered  his 
chariot  to  be  prepared,  he  immediately  set  out,  attended  by 
a  few  friends,  for  Arim'inum,  a  city  upon  the  confines  of 
Italy,  whither  he  had  despatched  a  part  of  his  army  the 
morning  before.  2.  This  journey  by  night,  which  was 
very  fatiguing,  he  performed  with  great  diligence,  some- 
times walking,  and  sometimes  on  horseback ;  till  at  the 
break  of  day,  he  came  up  with  his  army,  which  consisted 
of  about  five  thousand  men,  near  the  Ru'bicon,  a  little  river 
which  separates  Italy  from  Gaul,  and  which  marked  the 
limits  of  his  command.  3.  The  Romans  had  ever  been 
taught  to  consider  this  river  as  the  sacred  boundary  of  their 
domestic  empire.  4.  Caesar,  therefore,  when  he  advanced 
at  the  head  of  his  army  to  the  side  of  it,  stopped  short  upon 
the  bank,  as  if  impressed  with  terror  at  the  greatness  of  his 
enterprise.  He  could  not  pass  it  without  transgressing  the 
laws  ;  he  therefore  pondered  for  some  time  in  fixed  melan- 
choly, looking  and  debating  with  himself  whether  he  should 
venture  in.  "  If  I  pass  this  river,"  said  he  to  one  of  his 
generals,  "  what  miseries  shall  I  bring  upon  my  country ! 
and  if  I  now  stop  short  I  am  undone."  5.  After  a  pause 
he  exclaimed,  "  Let  us  go  where  the  gods  and  the  injustice 
of  our  enemies  call  us."  Thus  saying,  and  renewing  all 
his  former  alacrity,  he  plunged  in,  crying  out,  "  The  die  is 
cast."  His  soldiers  followed  him  with  equal  promptitude, 
and  having  passed  the  Ru'bicon,  quickly  arrived  at  Arim'i- 
num, and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  place  without  any 
resistance. 

6.  This  unexpected  enterprise  excited  the  utmost  terror 
in  Rome  ;  every  one  imagining  that  Caesar  was  leading  his 
army  to  lay  the  city  in  ruins.  At  the  same  time  were  to  be 
seen  the  citizens  flying  into  the  country  for  safety,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  coming  to  seek  shelter  in  the 
city.  7.  In  this  universal  confusion,  Pompey  felt  all  that 
repentance  and  self-condemnation,  which  must  necessarily 
arise  from  the  remembrance  of  having  advanced  his  rival  to 
his  present  pitch  of  power :  wherever  he  appeared,  many 
of  his  former  friends  were  ready  to  tax  him  with  his  su- 
pineness,  and  sarcastically  to  reproach  his  ill-grounded  pre- 
sumption. 8.  "  Where  is  now,"  cried  Favo'nius,  a  ridiculous 
senator  of  this  party,  "  the  army  that  is  to  rise  at  your  com- 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  199 

mand  ?  let  us  see  if  it  will  appear  by  stamping."*  Cato 
reminded  him  of  the  many  warnings  he  had  given  him ; 
which,  however,  as  he  was  continually  boding  nothing  but 
calamities,  Pompey  might  very  justly  be  excused  from 
attending  to.  9.  Being  at  length  wearied  with  these  re- 
proaches, which  were  offered  under  colour  of  advice,  he  did 
all  that  lay  in  his  power  to  encourage  and  confirm  his  fol- 
lowers :  he  told  them  that  they  should  not  want  an  army, 
for  that  he  would  be  their  leader.  He  confessed,  indeed, 
that  he  had  all  along  mistaken  Caesar's  aims,  judging  only 
from  what  they  ought  to  have  been  ;  however,  if  his  friends 
were  still  inspired  with  the  love  of  freedom,  they  might  yet 
enjoy  it  in  whatever  place  their  necessities  should  happen  to 
conduct  them.  1C.  He  let  them  know  that  their  affairs  were 
in  a  very  promising  situation  :  that  his  two  lieutenants  were 
at  the  head  of  a  very  considerable  army  in  Spain,  composed 
of  veteran  troops  that  had  made  a  conquest  of  the  east : 
besides  these,  there  were  infinite  resources,  both  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  together  with  the  succours  they  were  sure  to  receive 
from  all  the  kingdoms  that  were  in  alliance  with  Rome. 
11.  This  speech  served  in  some  measure  to  revive  the  hopes 
of  the  confederacy.  The  greatest  part  of  the  senate,  his 
private  friends  and  dependents,  with  all  those  who  expected 
to  make  their  fortunes  by  espousing  his  cause,  agreed  to 
follow  him.  But  being  in  no  capacity  to  resist  Caesar 
at  Rome,  he  resolved  to  lead  his  forces  to  Cap'ua,  where 
the  two  legions  that  served  under  Caesar  in  Gaul  were 
stationed. 

12.  Caesar  in  the  mean  time,  after  having  vainly  attempted 
to  bring  Pompey  to  an  accommodation,  resolved  to  pursue 
him  into  Cap'ua  before  he  could  collect  his  forces.     Accord- 
ingly, he  marched  on  to  take  possession  of  the  cities  that 
lay  between  him  and  his  rival,  not  regarding  Rome,  which 
he  knew  would  fall  of  course  to  the  conqueror. 

13.  Corfin'ium  was  the  first  city  that  attempted  to  stop 
the  rapidity  of  his  march.     It  was  defended  by  Domi'tius, 
who  had  been  appointed  by  the  senate  to  succeed  him   in 
Gaul.     Caesar  quickly  invested  it ;  and  though  Domi  tins 
senl  frequently  to  Pompey,  exhorting  him  to  come  and  raise 


*  This  alludes  to  a  boasting  speech  made  some  time  before  by  Pom- 
pey, when  he  told  the  senate  not  to  be  alarmed  at  the  news  of  Cssar's 
apptoach,  for  that  he  had  only  to  stamp,  and  an  army  would  rise  at  his 
command. 


200  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the  siege,  he  was  at  length  obliged  to  endeavour  to  escape 
privately.  14.  His  intentions  being  divulged,  the  garrison 
resolved  to  consult  their  own  safety  by  delivering  him  up  to 
the  besiegers.  Caesar  readily  accepted  their  offers,  but  kept 
his  men  from  immediately  entering  the  town.  15.  After  some 
time,  Len'tulus  the  consul,  who  was  one  of  the  besieged, 
came  out  to  implore  forgiveness  for  himself  and  the  rest  of 
his  confederates,  putting  Caesar  in  mind  of  their  ancient 
friendship,  and  acknowledging  the  many  favours  he  had  re- 
ceived at  his  hands.  10.  To  this  Caesar,  who  would  not 
wait  the  conclusion  of  his  speech,  generously  replied,  that 
he  came  into  Italy  not  to  injure  the  liberties  of  Rome  and 
its  citizens,  but  to  restore  them.  17.  This  humane  reply 
being  quickly  carried  into  the  city,  the  senators  and  the 
knights,  with  their  children,  and  some  officers  of  the  garri- 
son, came  out  to  claim  the  conqueror's  protection,  who,  just 
glancing  at  their  ingratitude,  gave  them  their  liberty,  with 
permission  to  go  wheresoever  they  should  think  proper. 
18.  But  while  he  dismissed  the  leaders,  he  took  care  upon 
this,  as  upon  all  other  occasions,  to  attach  the  common  sol- 
diers to  his  interest,  sensible  that  he  might  stand  in  need  of 
the  army ;  but  that  while  he  lived,  the  army  could  never 
stand  in  need  of  a  commander. 

19.  Pompey,  who  was  unable  to  continue  in  Rome,  having 
intelligence  of  what  had  passed  upon  this  occasion,  retreated 
to  Brundu'sium,  where  he  resolved  to  stand  a  siege,  in  order 
to  retard  the  enemy,  until  the  forces  of  the  empire  should 
be  united  to  oppose  him.  20.  His  aim  in  this  succeeded  to 
his  wish  ;  and  after  having  employed  Caesar  for  some  time 
in  a  fruitless  siege,  he  privately  carried  his  forces  over  to 
Dyrrach'ium,  where  the  consul  had  levied  a  body  of  troops 
for  his  assistance.  21.  However,  though  he  made  good  his 
escape,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  all  Italy  at  the  mercy  of 
his  rival,  without  a  town  or  an  army  that  had  strength  to 
oppose  his  progress. 

22.  Caesar,  who  could  not  follow  Pompey  for  want  of 
shipping,  went  back  to  Rome,  to  take  possession  of  the 
public  treasures,  which  his  opponent,  by  a  most  unaccount- 
able oversight,  had  neglected  to  take  with  him.  23.  Upon 
his  coming  up  to  the  door  of  the  treasury,  Metel'lus,  the 
tribune,  who  guarded  it,  refused  to  let  him  pass;  but  Caesar, 
with  emotion,  laying  his  hand  upon  his  sword,  threatened 
to  strike  him  dead.  "Know,  young  man,"  cried  he,  "it  is 
easier  to  do  this  than  say  it."  This  menace  had  its  effect; 


THE    COMTMOJttV  EALTH.  201 

Metel'lus  retired,  and  Csesar  took  out  of  the  treasury  three 
hundred  thousand  pounds  weight  of  gold,  and  an  immense 
quantity  of  silver. 

24.  Having  thus  provided  for  continuing  the  war,  he  de- 
parted from  Rome,  resolved  to  subdue  Pompey's  lieutenants, 
Afra'nius  and  Petrei'us,  who  had  been  long  in  Spain  at  the 
head  of  a  veteran  army,  which  had  ever  been  victorious. 
25.  Caesar,  however,  who  knew  the  abilities  of  its  present 
commanders,  jocosely  said,  as  he  was  preparing  to  march, 
"I  am  going  to  fight  an  army  without  a  general,  and  return 
to  fight  a  general  without  an  army." 

26.  The  first  conflict  which  he  had  with  Afra'nius  and 
Petrei'us  was  rather  unfavourable.  It  was  fought  near  the 
city  of  Ilerda,*  and  both  sides  claimed  the  honour  of  the 
victory.  But,  by  various  stratagems,  he  reduced  them  at 
last  to  such  extremity  of  hunger  and  drought,  that  they  were 
obliged  to  yield  at  discretion.  27.  Clemency  was  his 
favourite  virtue ;  he  dismissed  them  all  with  the  kindest 
professions,  and  then  sent  them  home  to  Rome  loaded  with 
shame,  and  with  obligations  to  publish  his  virtues,  and  con- 
firm the  affections  of  his  adherents.  28.  Thus,  in  the  space 
of  about  forty  days,  he  became  master  of  Spain,  and  re- 
turned again  victorious  to  Rome.  The  citizens  on  this 
occasion  received  him  with  fresh  demonstrations  of  joy, 
and  created  him  dictator  and  consul.  But  the  first  of  these 
offices  he  laid  down  when  he  had  held  it  eleven  days. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

J.  How  did  Caesar  conduct  himself  on  the  night  previous  to  his  in- 
tended journey  to  Italy  1 

2.  Did  he  accomplish  his  journey  in  safety  T 

3.  What  rendered  this  little  river  of  consequence] 

4.  Did  Csesar  pass  it  without  hesitation  1 

5.  How  did  he  determine  ? 

6.  What  effect  was  produced  at  Rome  by  this  enterprise  ? 

7.  How  was  Pompey  affected  by  it  1 

8.  What  taunting  expressions  were  used  on  this  occasion  7 

9.  What  was  Pompey's  conduct  in  reply  ] 

10.  How  did  he  represent  the  state  of  aflairs? 

11.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  statement? 

12.  How  was  Csesar  employed  in  the  mean  while! 
13  What  city  first  arrested  his  progress  ? 

•  Now  L«rida  in  Catalonia. 


202  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

14.  Did  he  succeed  in  his  endeavour  7 

15.  What  attempt  was  made  to  incline  Caesar  to  mercy? 

16.  What  was  Caesar's  reply  ] 

17.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  reply? 

18.  Did  he  dismiss  the  soldiers  likewise  I 

19.  Whither  did  Pompey  retreat,  and  with  what  view? 

20.  Did  he  succeed  in  his  aims'! 

21.  What  was  the  consequence  of  his  retreat? 

22.  Did  Cffsar  follow  Pompey  ? 

23.  Was  he  opposed  in  his  attempt? 
21.   What  was  his  next  enterprise  7 

25.  What  was  Caesar's  opinion  of  these  commanders  ? 

26.  Were  they  easily  conquered  ? 

27.  What  use  did  he  make  of  his  victory  ? 

28.  What  was  the  duration  of  this  campaign,  and  what  were  its  conse- 

quences ? 


SECTION  III. 

1.  WHILE  Caesar  was  thus  employed,  Pompey  was  active 
in  making  preparations  in  Epi'rus  and  Greece  to  oppose 
him.  2.  All  the  monarchs  of  the  East  had  declared  in  his 
favour,  and  sent  very  large  supplies.  He  was  master  of 
nine  effective  Italian  legions,  and  had  a  fleet  of  five  hundred 
large  ships,  under  the  conduct  of  Bib'ulus,  an  active  and 
experienced  commander.  Added  to  these,  he  was  supplied 
with  large  sums  of  money,  and  all  the  necessaries  for  an 
army,  from  the  tributary  provinces  round  him.  3.  He  had 
attacked  Antony  and  Dolabel'la,  who  commanded  for  Caesar 
in  that  part  of  the  empire,  with  such  success,  that  the  for- 
mer was  obliged  to  fly,  and  the  latter  was  taken  prisoner. 
Crowds  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  and  nobles  from 
Rome  came  every  day  to  join  him.  He  had  at  one  time 
above  two  hundred  senators  in  his  camp,  among  whom  were 
Ci'cero  and  Ca'to,  whose  approbation  of  his  cause  was 
equivalent  to  an  army. 

4.  Notwithstanding  these  preparations,  Caesar  shipped  off 
five  of  his  twelve  legions  at  Brundu'sium,  and  fortunately 
steered  through  the  midst  of  his  enemies,  timing  it  so  well 
that  he  made  his  passage  in  one  day.  5.  Still,  however, 
convinced  that  the  proper  time  for  making  proposals  for  a 
peace  was  after  gaining  advantage,  he  sent  one  Ru'fus,  whom 
he  had  taken  prisoner,  to  effect  an  accommodation  with 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  203 


Cciar  embirklnj  in  a  fiihinj  bo»t. 

Pompey,  offering  to  refer  all  to  the  senate  and  people  of 
Rome ;  but  Pompey  once  more  rejected  the  overture,  con- 
sidering the  people  of  Rome  too  much  in  Caesar's  interest 
to  be  relied  on. 

6.  Pompey  had  been  raising  supplies  in  Macedo'nia  when 
lie  was  first  informed  of  Caesar's  landing  upon  the  coast  of 
Epi'rus :  he  now  resolved  immediately  to  march  to  Dyr- 
rach'ium,  in  order  to  cover  that  place  from  Caesar's  attempts, 
as  all  his  ammunition  and  provisions  were  deposited  there. 
7.  The  first  place  where  both  armies  came  in  sight  of  each 
other  was  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  river  Ap'sus  ;  and 
as  both  were  commanded  by  the  two  greatest  generals  then 
iu  the  world ;  the  one  renowned  for  his  conquests  in  the 
East,  and  the  other  celebrated  for  his  victories  over  the 
western  parts  of  the  empire,  a  battle  was  eagerly  desired  by 
the  soldiers  on  either  side.  8.  But  neither  of  the  generals 
were  willing  to  hazard  it  upon  this  occasion :  Pompey  could 
not  rely  upon  his  new  levies  ;  and  Caesar  would  not  venture 
an  engagement  till  he  was  joined  by  the  rest  of  his  forces. 

9.  Caesar  had  waited  some  time  with  extreme  impatience 
for  the  coming  up  of  the  remainder  of  his  army,  and  even 
ventured  alone  in  an  open  fishing-boat  to  hasten  its  arrival ; 
but  lie  was  driven  back  by  a  storm.*  10.  However,  his 
disappointment  was  soon  relieved  by  an  information  of  the 

*  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  encouraged  the  mastor  of  the  vessel, 
to  whom  hi-  had  not  hct'oiv.  m:nlc  himsi'lf  known,  with  these  memorable 
words — "Fear  nothing,  for  thou  earnest  Ctesar  and  all  his  fortunes." 


204  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

landing  of  the  troops  at  Apollo'nia;  he,  therefore,  decamped 
in  order  to  meet  them  ;  and  to  prevent  Pompey,  with  his 
army,  from  engaging  them  on  their  march,  as  he  lay  on  that 
side  of  the  river  where  the  succours  had  been  obliged  to 
come  on  shore. 

11.  Pompey,  being  compelled  to  retreat,  led  his  forces 
to  Aspara'gium,  where  he  was  sure  of  being  supplied  with 
every  thing  necessary  for  his  army,  by  the  numerous  fleets 
which  he  employed  along  the  coasts  of  Epi'rus  :  there  he 
pitched  his  camp  upon  a  tongue  of  land  (as  mariner's  express 
it)  that  jutted  into  the  sea,  where  also  was  a  small  shelter 
for  his  ships.  12.  In  this  place,  being  most  advantageously 
situated,  he  began  immediately  to  intrench  his  camp ;  which 
Caesar  perceiving,  and  finding  that  he  was  not  likely  soon 
to  quit  so  advantageous  a  post,  began  also  to  intrench  behind 
him.  13.  As  all  beyond  Pompey's  camp  towards  the  land 
side  was  hilly  and  steep,  Caesar  built  redoubts  upon  the  hills, 
stretching  from  shore  to  shore,  and  then  caused  lines  of 
communication  to  be  drawn  from  hill  to  hill,  by  which  he 
blocked  up  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  14.  He  hoped  by  this 
blockade  to  force  his  opponent  to  a  battle,  which  he  ar- 
dently desired,  and  which  the  other  with  equal  industry 
declined.  Thus  both  sides  continued  for  some  time  em- 
ployed in  designs  and  stratagems,  the  one  to  annoy  and  the 
other  to  defend.  15.  Caesar's  men  daily  carried  on  their 
works  to  straiten  the  enemy ;  those  of  Pompey,  having  the 
advantage  of  numbers,  did  the  same  to  enlarge  themselves, 
and  severely  galled  the  enemy  by  their  slingers  and  archers. 
16.  Caesar,  however,  was  indefatigable;  he  caused  blinds 
or  mantalets  to  be  made  of  the  skins  of  beasts,  to  cover  his 
men  while  at  work ;  he  cut  on"  all  the  water  that  supplied 
the  enemy's  camp,  and  the  forage  from  the  horses,  so  that 
there  "emained  no  more  subsistence  for  them.  17.  But 
Pompey  at  last  resolved  to  break  through  his  lines,  and  gain 
some  other  part  of  the  country  more  convenient  for  encamp- 
ment. Accordingly,  having  informed  himself  of  the  con- 
dition of  Caesar's  fortifications  from  some  deserters  who 
came  over  to  him,  he  ordered  the  light  infantry  and  archers 
on  board  his  ships  to  attack  Caesar's  entrenchments  by  sea, 
where  they  were  least  defended.  18.  This  was  done  with 
such  effect,  that  though  Cfesar  and  his  officers  used  their 
utmost  endeavours  to  hinder  Pompey's  designs,  yet  by 
means  of  reiterated  attempts,  he  at  last  effected  his  purpose 
of  extricating  his  army  from  its  present  camp,  and  of  en- 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  205 

camping  in  another  place  by  the  sea,  where  he  had  the  con- 
venience both  of  forage  and  shipping.  19.  Caesar  being 
thus  frustrated  in  his  views  of  blocking  up  the  enemy,  and 
perceiving  the  loss  he  had  sustained,  resolved  at  last  to  force 
Pompey  to  a  battle,  though  upon  disadvantageous  terms. 
20.  The  engagement  began  by  attempting  to  cut  off  a  legion 
which  was  posted  in  a  wood  ;  and  this  brought  on  a  general 
battle.  The  conflict  was  for  some  time  carried  on  with 
great  ardour,  and  with  equal  fortune ;  but  Caesar's  army 
being  entangled  in  the  entrenchments  of  the  old  camps 
lately  abandoned,  began  to  fall  into  disorder ;  upon  which 
Pompey  pressing  his  advantage,  they  at  last  fled  with  pre- 
cipitation. Great  numbers  perished  in  the  trenches  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  river,  or  were  pressed  to  death  by  their 
fellows.  21.  Pompey  pursued  his  success  to  the  very 
camp  of  Caesar ;  but  either  from  surprise,  under  the  sud- 
denness of  his  victory,  or  fearful  of  an  ambuscade,  he  with 
drew  his  troops  into  his  own  camp,  and  thus  lost  an  oppor- 
tunity of  completing  his  victory. 

22.  After  this  defeat,  which  was  by  no  means  decisive, 
Caesar  marched,  with  all  his  forces  united  in  one  body,  di- 
rectly to  Gom'phi,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Thes'saly.  But 
the  news  of  his  defeat  at  Dyr'rachium  had  reached  this  place 
before  him  ;  the  inhabitants,  therefore,  who  had  before  pro- 
mised him  obedience,  now  changed  their  minds,  and,  with 
a  degree  of  baseness  equal  to  their  imprudence,  shut  their 
gates  against  him.  23.  Caesar  was  not  to  be  injured  with 
impunity.  Having  represented  to  his  soldiers  the  great 
advantage  of  forcing  a  place  so  very  rich,  he  ordered  the 
scaling  ladders  to  be  got  ready,  and  causing  an  assault  to 
be  made,  proceeded  with  such  vigour  that,  notwithstanding 
the  height  of  the  walls,  the  town  was  taken  in  a  few  hours. 
24.  Caesar  left  it  to  be  plundered,  and,  without  delaying  his 
march,  went  forward  to  Metrop'olis,  another  town  of  the 
same  province,  which  yielded  at  his  approach.  By  this 
means  he  soon  became  possessed  of  all  Thes'saly,  except 
Laris'sa,  which  was  garrisoned  by  Scip'io,  with  his  legion 
who  commanded  for  Pompey.  25.  During  this  interval, 
Pompey's  officers  continually  soliciting  their  commander  to 
come  to  a  battle,  he,  at  length,  resolved  to  renounce  his 
own  judgment  in  compliance  with  those  about  him,  and 
gave  up  all  schemes  of  prudence  for  those  dictated  by 
avarice  and  passion.  26.  Advancing,  therefore,  into  Thes'- 
saly, within  a  few  days  after  the  taking  of  Gom'phi,  he  drew 
S 


206  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

down  upon  the  plains  of  Pharsa'lia,  where  he  was  joined  by 
Scip'io,  his  lieutenant,  and  the  troops  under  his  command. 
There,  waiting  the  coming  of  Caesar,  he  resolved  to  engage, 
and,  by  a  single  battle,  decide  the  fate  of  kingdoms. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  was  Pompey  engaged  at  this  time  1 

2.  What  advantages  did  he  possess  1 

3.  What  farther  contributed  to  give  him  hopes  of  success  ? 

4.  Was  Caesar  discouraged  by  these  formidable  preparations  ? 

5.  Was  he  resolutely  bent  on  hostilities  1 

6.  What  was  Pompey's  first  measure  ? 

7.  Where  did  the  armies  first  come  in  sight  of  each  other? 

8.  Was  an  immediate  engagement  the  consequence  1 

9.  Was  this  junction  soon  effected  1 

10.  What  was  the  consequence] 

11.  What  was  Pompey's  next  measure? 

12.  Did  he  remain  long  in  this  place  ? 

13.  What  means  did  Csesar  adopt  to  distress  the  enemy  ? 

14.  What  did  he  promise  himself  from  the  adoption  of  this  plan? 

15.  How  were  both  armies  employed? 

16.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Csesar  on  this  occasion? 

17.  How  did  Pompey  frustrate  his  designs? 

18.  Was  he  successful  in  his  attempts  ? 

19.  What  was  Caesar's  resolution  on  this  occasion? 

20.  By  what  means  did  he  effect  this  ? 

21.  Did  Pompey  make  the  most  of  his  victory? 

22.  Whither  did  Cssar  betake  himself,  and  what  was  the  consequence 

of  his  defeat] 

23.  Did  he  quietly  submit  to  this  insult? 

24.  What  revenge  did  he  take  ? 

25.  How  did  Pompey  act  on  this  occasion? 

26.  Where  was  this  great  contest  about  to  be  decided  ? 


SECTION  IV. 

1.  C.ESAR  had  employed  all  his  art  for  some  time  in 
sounding  the  inclinations  of  his  men ;  and  finding  his  army 
once  more  resolute  and  vigorous,  he  advanced  towards  the 
plains  of  Pharsa'lia,  where  Pompey  was  encamped. 

2.  The  approach  of  two  armies,  composed  of  the  best 
and  bravest  troops  in  the  world,  together  with  the  greatness 
of  the  prize  for  which  they  contended,  filled  every  mind 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  207 

with  anxiety,  though  with  different  expectations.     3.  Pom- 
pey's  army,  being  most  numerous,  turned  all  their  thoughts 
to  the  enjoyment  of  the  victory ;  Caesar's  considered  only 
the  means  of  obtaining  it ;  Pompey's  army  depended  upon 
their  numbers,  and   their  many  generals  ;    Caesar's    upon 
their  discipline,  and  the  conduct  of  their  single  commander. 
4.  Pompey's  partisans  hoped  mtoch  from  the  justice  of 
their  cause  ;  Caesar's  alleged  the  frequent  proposals  which 
they  had  made  for  peace  without  effect.     Thus  the  views, 
hopes  and  motives  of  both  seemed  different,  whilst  their 
hatred  and  ambition  were  the  same.     5.  Caesar,  who  was 
ever  foremost  in  offering  battle,  led  out  his  army  to  meet 
the  enemy;  but  Pompey,  either  suspecting  his  troops,  or 
dreading  the  event,  kept  his  advantageous  situation  at  the 
foot  of   the  hill   near   which   he   was   posted.     6.    Caesar, 
unwilling  to  attack  him  at  a  disadvantage,  resolved  to  de- 
camp the  next  day,  hoping  to  weary  out  his  antagonist,  who 
was  not  a  match  for  him  in  sustaining  the  fatigues  of  duty. 
7.  Accordingly  the  order  for  marching  was  given,  and  the 
tents  were  struck,  when  word  was  brought  him  that  Pom- 
pey's army  had  now  quitted  their  intrenchments,  and  ad- 
vanced farther  into  the  plain  than  usual ;  so  that  he  might 
engage  them  at  less  disadvantage.     8.  Upon  this  he  caused 
his  troops  to  halt,  and,  with  a  countenance  of  joy,  informed 
them  that  the  happy  time  was  at  last  come,  which  they  had 
so  long  wished  for,  and  which  was  to  crown  their  glory,  and 
terminate  their  fatigues.     He  then  drew  up  his  troops  in 
order,  and  advanced  towards  the  place  of  battle.     9.  His 
forces  did  not  amount  to  above  half  those  of  Pompey ;  the 
army  of  the  one  was  about  forty-five  thousand  foot,  and  seven 
thousand  horse  :  that  of  the  other  not  exceeding  twenty-two 
thousand  foot,  and  about  a  thousand  horse.     10.  This  dis- 
proportion, particularly  in  the  cavalry,  had  filled  Caesar  with 
apprehensions ;  he  therefore  had  some  days  before  picked 
out  the  strongest  and  nimblest  of  his  foot  soldiers,  and  ac- 
customed them  to  fight  between  the.  ranks  of  his  cavalry. 
By  their  assistance,  his  thousand  horse  was  a  match  for 
Pompey's  seven  thousand,  and  had  actually  got  the  better  in 
a  skirmish  that  happened  between  them  some  days  before. 
11.  Pompey,  on  the  other  hand,  had  a  strong  expectation 
of  success  ;  he  boasted  that  he  could  put  Caesar's  legions  to 
flight  without  striking  a  single  blow;  presuming  that  as  soon 
as  the  armies  formed,  his  cavalry,  on  which  he  placed  his 
greatest  expectations,  would   out-flank  and   surround   the 


208  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

enemy.  In  this  disposition  Pompey  led  his  troops  to  battle 
12.  As  the  armies  approached,  the  two  generals  went  from 
rank  to  rank,  encouraging  their  men,  exciting  their  hopes, 
and  lessening  their  apprehensions.  13.  Pompey  represented 
to  his  men  that  the  glorious  occasion  which  they  had  long 
besought  him  to  grant  was  now  before  them.  "  What  ad- 
vantages," said  he,  could  you  wish,  that  you  are  not  now 
possessed  of.  Your  numbers,  your  vigour,  a  late  victory, 
all  assure  us  of  a  speedy  and  an  easy  conquest  of  those 
harassed  and  broken  troops,  composed  of  men  worn  out 
with  age,  and  impressed  with  the  terrors  of  a  recent  defeat ; 
but  there  is  still  a  stronger  bulwark  for  our  protection  than 
the  superiority  of  our  strength  ;  and  that  is,  the  justice  of 
our  cause.  You  are  engaged  in  the  defence  of  liberty  and 
of  your  country ;  you  are  supported  by  its  laws,  and  followed 
by  its  magistrates ;  the  world  are  spectators  of  your  conduct, 
and  wish  you  success :  on  the  contrary,  he  whom  you  op 
pose  is  a  robber,  an  oppressor  of  his  country,  already  nearly 
sunk  with  the  consciousness  of  his  crimes,  as  well  as  the  ill 
success  of  his  arms.  Show  then,  on  this  occasion,  all  that 
ardour  and  detestation  of  tyranny  which  should  animate 
Romans,  and  do  justice  to  mankind." 

14.  Caesar,  on  his  part,  went  among  his  men  with  that 
steady  serenity  for  which  he  was  so  much  admired  in  the 
midst  of  danger.  He  insisted  on  nothing  so  strongly,  as  his 
frequent  and  unsuccessful  endeavours  for  peace.  He  spoke 
with  terror  of  the  blood  he  was  about  to  shed,  and  pleaded 
the  necessity  that  urged  him  to  it.  He  deplored  the  many 
brave  men  that  were  to  fall  on  both  sides,  and  the  wounds 
of  his  country,  whoever  might  be  victorious.  15.  His  sol- 
diers answered  only  with  looks  of  ardour  and  impatience. 
He  gave  the  signal  to  begin.  The  word  on  Pompey's  side 
was,  "  Her'cules  the  Invincible:"  that  on  Caesar's,  "  Ve'nus 
the  Victorious."  16.  There  was  no  more  space  between 
both  armies  than  to  give  room  for  the  charge :  Pompey 
therefore  ordered  his  men  to  receive  the  first  shock  without 
moving  from  their  places,  expecting  the  enemy's  ranks  to 
be  put  into  disorder.  Caesar's  soldiers  were  now  rushing 
on  with  their  usual  impetuosity,  when,  perceiving  the  enemy 
motionless,  they  all  stopt  short,  as  if  by  general  consent, 
and  halted  in  the  midst  of  their  career.  17.  A  terrible  pause 
ensued,  in  which  both  armies  continued  to  gaze  upon  each 
other  with  mutual  terror  and  dreadful  serenity.  At  length, 
Caesar's  men  having  taken  breath,  ran  furiously  upon  the 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  209 

enemy,  first  discharging  their  javelins,  and  then  drawing 
their  swords.  The  same  method  was  observed  by  Pompey's 
troops,  who  as  firmly  sustained  the  attack.  His  cavalry  also 
were  ordered  to  charge  at  the  very  onset,  which,  with  the 
multitude  of  archers  and  slingers,  soon  obliged  Caesar's  men 
to  give  ground.  18.  Caesar  instantly  ordered  the  six  cohorts, 
that  were  placed  as  a  reinforcement,  to  advance,  and  to 
strike  at  the  enemy's  faces.  19.  This  had  its  desired  effect: 
Pompey's  cavalry,  that  were  just  before  sure  of  the  victory, 
received  an  immediate  check.  The  unusual  method  of 
fighting  pursued  by  the  cohorts,  their  aiming  entirely  at  the 
visages  of  the  assailants,  and  the  horrible  disfiguring  wounds 
they  made,  all  contributed  to  intimidate  them  so  much,  that 
instead  of  defending  their  persons,  they  endeavoured  only 
to  save  their  faces.*  20.  A  total  rout  ensued;  they  fled  to 
the  neighbouring  mountains,  while  the  archers  and  slingers, 
who  were  thus  abandoned,  were  cut  to  pieces.  21.  Caesar 
now  commanded  the  cohorts  to  pursue  their  success,  and 
charge  Pompey's  troops  upon  the  flank :  this  charge  the 
enemy  withstood  for  some  time  with  great  bravery,  till 
Caesar  brought  up  his  third  line,  which  had  not  yet  engaged. 
22.  Pompey's  infantry  being  thus  doubly  attacked,  in  front 
by  fresh  troops,  and  in  the  rear  by  the  victorious  cohorts, 
could  no  longer  resist,  but  fled  to  their  camp.  The  flight 
began  among  the  strangers.  Pompey's  right  wing  still 
valiantly  maintained  their  ground.  23.  Caesar,  however, 
convinced  that  the  victory  was  certain,  with  his  usual  clem- 
ency cried  out  to  pursue  the  strangers,  but  to  spare  the 
Romans ;  upon  which  they  all  laid  down  their  arms  and 
received  quarter.  The  greatest  slaughter  was  among  the 
auxiliaries,  who  fled  on  all  sides.  24.  The  battle  had  now 
lasted  from  break  of  day  till  noon,  and  the  weather  was  ex 
tremely  hot ;  nevertheless,  the  conquerors  remitted  not  their 
ardour,  being  encouraged  by  the  example  of  a  general,  who 
thought  his  victory  incomplete  till  he  should  become  master 
of  the  enemy's  camp.  Accordingly,  marching  on  foot  at 
their  head,  he  called  upon  them  to  follow  and  strike  the  de- 
cisive blow.  25.  The  cohorts  which  were  left  to  defend 
the  camp,  for  some  time  made  a  formidable  resistance ;  par- 
ticularly a  great  number  of  Thra'cians  and  other  barbarians, 
who  were  appointed  for  that  purpose ;  but  nothing  could 

*  Caesar  calls  the  young  patricians  that  composed  Pompey's  cavalry, 
"  pretty  young  dancers." 

8  2 


210  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

resist  the  ardour  of  Caesar's  victorious  army ;  the  enemy 
were  at  last  driven  from  the  trenches,  and  compelled  to  fly 
to  the  mountains. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  state  of  Caesar's  army  immediately  before  the  battle 

of  Pharsalial 

2.  What  effect  had  the  approaching  event  on  the  minds  of  men  1 

3.  What  were  the  respective  advantages  of  each  army] 

4.  On  what  did  they  principally  build  their  hopes  1 

5.  Who  was  the  first  to  offer  battle  1 

6.  How  did  Caesar  act  on  this  occasion? 

7.  What  followed? 

8.  What  effect  had  this  intelligence  on  Caesar's  plan  1 

9.  Of  what  number  of  troops  were  each  of  the  armies  composed  ? 

10.  What  did  Caesar  consider  necessary  to  be  done  to  remedy  this  dis- 

proportion 1 

11.  What  were  Pompey's  expectations  and  boasts? 

12.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  generals? 

1 3.  Repeat  Pompey's  address  to  his  troops  ? 

14.  How  did  Caesar  encourage  his  men  ? 

15.  What  effect  had  this  speech,  and  what  was  the  word  on  both  sides? 

16.  In  what  manner  did  the  attack  commence  ? 

1 7.  Describe  the  progress  of  the  battle  ] 

18.  What  means  did  Caesar  adopt  to  prevent  a  defeat? 

19.  Was  this  measure  successful  ? 

20.  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

2  1 .  What  were  Caesar's  farther  commands  ? 
23.  What  followed  ? 

23.  What  use  did  Caesar  make  of  his  victory? 

24.  Did  not  fatigue  abate  the  ardour  of  Caesar's  troops? 

25.  Did  they  attempt  to  defend  the  camp  ? 


SECTION  V. 

1.  C^SAR,  seeing  the  field  and  camp  strewed  with  his 
fallen  countrymen,  was  strongly  affected  at  the  melancholy 
prospect,  and  cried  out  to  one  that  stood  near  him,  "  They 
would  have  it  so."  2.  In  the  camp,  every  object  presented 
fresh  instances  of  the  blind  presumption  and  madness  of  his 
adversaries.  On  all  sides  were  to  be  seen  tents  adorned 
with  ivy  and  myrtle,  couches  covered  with  purple,  and  side- 
boards loaded  with  plate.  Every  thing  gave  proof  of  the 


THE    COMMONWEALTH  211 

highest  luxury,  and  seemed  rather  the  preparatives  for  a 
banquet,  or  the  rejoicings  for  a  victory,  than  dispositions 
for  a  battle.  3.  A  camp  so  richly  furnished  would  have 
engaged  the  attention  of  any  troops  but  Caesar's  ;  but  there 
was  still  something  to  be  done,  and  he  permitted  them  not 
to  pursue  any  other  object  than  their  enemies.  4.  A  con- 
siderable body  having  retired  to  the  adjacent  mountains,  he 
prevailed  on  his  soldiers  to  join  him  in  the  pursuit,  in  order 
to  oblige  these  to  surrender.  He  began  by  inclosing  them 
with  a  line  drawn  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain ;  but  they 
quickly  abandoned  a  post  which  was  untenable  for  want  of 
water,  and  endeavoured  to  reach  the  city  of  Laris'sa.  5. 
Caesar,  leading  a  part  of  his  army  by  a  shorter  way,  inter- 
cepted their  retreat.  However,  these  unhappy  fugitives 
again  found  protection  from  a  mountain,  at  the  foot  of 
which  ran  a  rivulet  that  supplied  them  with  water.  6. 
Night  approaching,  Caesar's  men  were  almost  spent,  and 
fainting  with  their  incessant  toil  since  morning ;  yet  still  he 
prevailed  upon  them  to  renew  their  labours,  and  cut  off  the 
rivulet  that  supplied  the  defendants.  7.  The  fugitives,  thus 
deprived  of  all  hopes  of  succour  or  subsistence,  sent  depu- 
ties to  the  conqueror,  offering  to  surrender  at  discretion. 
During  this  interval  of  negociation,  a  few  senators  that  were 
among  them,  took  the  advantage  of  the  night  to  escape,  and 
the  rest,  next  morning,  gave  up  their  arms,  and  experienced 
the  conqueror's  clemency.  In  fact,  he  addressed  them  with 
great  gentleness,  and  forbade  the  soldiers  to  offer  violence, 
or  to  take  any  thing  from  them.  8.  Thus  Caesar  gained  the 
most  complete  victory  that  had  ever  been  obtained ;  and  by 
his  great  clemency  after  the  battle,  seemed  to  have  deserved 
it.  His  loss  amounted  only  to  two  hundred  men ;  that  of 
Pompey  to  fifteen  thousand  ;  twenty-four  thousand  men  sur- 
rendered themselves  prisoners  of  war,  and  the  greatest  part 
of  these  entered  into  Caesar's  army,  and  were  incorporated 
with  the  rest  of  his  forces.  9.  To  the  senators  and  Roman 
knights,  who  fell  into  his  hands,  he  generously  gave  liberty 
to  retire  wherever  they  thought  proper;  and  as  for  the  letters 
which  Pompey  had  received  from  those  who  wished  to  be 
thought  neutral,  Caesar  burnt  them  all  without  reading,  as 
Pompey  had  done  on  a  former  occasion.  10.  Thus  having 
performed  all  the  duties  of  a  general  and  a  statesman,  he  sent 
for  the  legions  which  had  passed  the  night  in  camp,  to  re- 
lieve those  which  had  accompanied  him  in  the  pursuit,  and 
arrived  the  same  day  at  Laris'sa. 


212  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

1 1 .  As  for  Pompey,  who  had  formerly  shown  such  in 
stances  of  courage  and  conduct,  when  he  saw  his  cavalry 
routed,  on  which  he  had  placed  his  sole  dependence,  he  ab- 
solutely lost  his  reason.  12.  Instead  of  thinking  how  to 
remedy  this  disorder  by  rallying  such  troops  as  fled,  or  by 
opposing  fresh  forces  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  conqueror, 
being  totally  amazed  by  this  first  blow,  he  returned  to  the 
camp,  and  in  his  tent  waited 'the  issue  of  an  event  which  it 
was  his  duty  to  have  directed,  not  to  follow.  There  he  re- 
mained for  some  moments  speechless,  till  being  told  that 
the  camp  was  attacked — "What!"  says  he,  "are  we  pur- 
sued to  our  very  intrenchments  ?"  when,  immediately  quit- 
ting his  armour  for  a  habit  more  suited  to  his  circumstances, 
he  fled  on  horseback  to  Laris'sa:  thence,  perceiving  that  he 
was  not  pursued,  he  slackened  his  pace,  giving  way  to  all 
the  agonizing  reflections  which  his  deplorable  situation  must 
naturally  suggest.  13.  In  this  melancholy  manner  he 
passed  along  the  vale  of  Tempe,  and  pursuing  the  course 
of  the  river  Pe'neus,  at  last  arrived  at  a  fisherman's  hut; 
here  he  passed  the  night,  and  then  went  on  board  a  little 
bark,  keeping  along  the  sea-shore,  till  he  descried  a  ship  of 
some  burden,  which  seemed  preparing  to  sail.  In  this  he 
embarked ;  the  master  of  the  vessel  still  paying  him  that 
homage  which  was  due  to  his  former  station. 

14.  From  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pe'neus  he  sailed  to 
Amphip'olis,  where,  finding  his  affairs  desperate,  he  steered 
to  Les'bos,  to  take  with  him  his  wife  Corne'lia,  whom  he 
had  left  there,  at  a  distance  from  the  dangers  and  distresses 
of  war.  15.  She,  who  had  long  flattered  herself  with  the 
hopes  of  victory ,,  now  felt  the  agonizing  reverse  of  fortune  : 
she  was  desired  by  the  messenger,  whose  tears  more  than 
his  words  proclaimed  her  unspeakable  misfortunes,  to  hasten 
away  if  she  expected  to  see  Pompey,  who  had  but  one  ship, 
and  even  that  not  his  own.  16.  Her  grief,  which  before 
was  violent,  became  now  insupportable :  she  fainted,  and 
lay  without  signs  of  life.  At  length  recovering,  and  reflect- 
ing that  it  was  no  time  for  vain  lamentations,  she  fled  through 
the  city  to  the  seaside. 

17.  Pompey  received  and  embraced  her,  and  in  silent 
despair  supported  her  in  his  arms.  "Alas  !"  said  Corne'lia, 
"  you  who,  before  our  marriage,  appeared  in  these  seas  as 
the  commander  of  five  hundred  sail,  are  now  reduced  to 
make  your  escape  in  a  single  vessel.  Why  come  you  in 
search  of  an  unfortunate  woman  ?  Why  was  I  not  left  to  a 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  213 


Death  of  Fompej. 

fate  which  now  you  are  under  the  necessity  of  sharing  with 
me  ?  Happy  for  me  had  I  executed,  long  since,  my  design 
of  quitting  this  life  !  But  fatally  have  I  been  reserved  to  add 
to  Pompey's  sorrows." 

18.  Pompey  instanced  the  uncertainty  of  all  human  affairs, 
and  endeavoured  by  every  argument  to  give  her  comfort ; 
then,  taking  her  under  his  protection,  he  continued  his 
course,  stopping  no  longer  than  was  necessary  for  a  supply 
of  provisions  at  the  ports  which  occurred  in  his  passage. 
19.  He  now  determined  upon  applying  to  Ptol'emy,  king 
of  Egypt,  to  whose  father  he  had  been  a  considerable  bene- 
factor. Ptol'emy  was  yet  a  minor,  and  had  not  the  govern- 
ment in  his  own  hands,  but  was  under  the  direction  of  an 
administration.  20.  His  council  insidiously  contrived  that 
Pompey  should  be  invited  on  shore,  and  murdered  before 
he  should  come  into  the  king's  presence.  Achil'las,  com- 
mander of  the  forces,  and  Septim'ius,  a  Roman,  who  had 
formerly  been  a  centurion  in  Pompey's  army,  undertook 
to  carry  the  treacherous  design  into  execution.  Attended 
by  three  or  four  more,  they  put  off  in  a  little  bark,  and 
rowed  to  Pompey's  ship,  that  lay  about  a  mile  from  the 
shore. 

21.  Pompey  now  took  leave  of  Corne'lia,  repeating  to 
her  a  verse  of  Soph'ocles,  signifying,  that  "  he  who  trusts 
his  freedom  to  a  tyrant,  from  that  moment  becomes  a  slave." 
He  then  gave  his  hand  to  Achil'las,  and,  with  only  two  of 
his  own  attendants,  stepped  into  the  bark.  22.  The  frantic 
Corne'lia  nung  over  the  side  of  the  deck,  weeping  and 


214  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

exclaiming  against  his  separation  from  her.     "  Alas  !"  said 
she,  "whither  art  thou  going?" 

He  spoke ;  but  she,  unmoved  at  his  commands, 
Thus  loud  exclaiming,  stretch'd  her  eager  hands ; 
"  Whither,  inhuman  !  whither  art  thou  gone  1 
Still  must  I  weep  our  common  griefs  alone  1" 

HOWE'S  LUCAJT. 

Ill  wild  astonishment  she  followed  him  with  her  eyes,  and 
uttering  to  the  winds  her  fruitless  lamentations. 

23.  The  mariners,  regardless  of  her  sorrows,  rowed  to- 
wards land,  without  a  word  passing  among  them,  till  Pom- 
pey,  by  way  of  breaking  silence,  looking  at  Septim'ius, 
whose  face  he  recollected.  "  Methinks,  friend,"  said  he, 
"  you  once  served  under  me."  Septim'ius  noticing  these 
words  only  by  a  contemptuous  nod  of  the  head,  Pompey 
betook  himself  to  a  paper,  on  which  he  had  minuted  a 
speech  intended  to  be  made  to  the  king,  and  began  reading 
it.  In  this  manner  they  approached  the  shore  ;  whilst  Cor- 
ne'lia,  whose  insufferable  sorrow  had  never  let  her  lose 
sight  of  her  husband,  began  to  conceive  hopes,  perceiving 
that  the  people  on  the  strand  crowded  down  along  the  coast 
as  if  eager  to  receive  him.  24.  Alas  !  these  hopes  were 
soon  destroyed.  At  the  instant  that  Pompey  rose,  support- 
ing himself  upon  his  freedman's  arm,  Septim'ius  stabbed  him 
in  the  back,  and  Achillas  instantly  seconded  the  blow.  25. 
Pompey,  perceiving  his  death  inevitable,  calmly  disposed 
himself  to  meet  it  with  decency ;  and  covering  his  face  with 
his  robe,  without  a  word  resigned  himself  to  his  fate.  26. 
At  this  horrid  sight,  Corne'lia  and  her  attendants  shrieked, 
so  as  to  be  heard  to  the  very  shore.  But  the  danger  they 
were  in  allowing  no  time  to  look  on,  they  immediately  set 
sail,  and,  the  wind  proving  favourable,  fortunately  escaped 
the  pursuit  of  the  Egyptian  galleys.  27.  In  the  mean  time, 
Pompey's  murderers,  having  taken  off  his  head,  embalmed 
it  for  a  present  to  Caesar,  whilst  the  body  was  thrown  naked 
on  the  strand,  and  exposed  to  the  view  of  those  whose  cu- 
riosity was  to  be  satisfied.  28.  But  his  faithful  freedman, 
Philip,  still  kept  near  it ;  and  when  the  crowd  dispersed,  he 
washed  it  in  the  sea,  and  looking  round  for  materials  to  burr 
it,  perceived  the  wrecks  of  a  fishing-boat,  of  which  he  com- 
posed a  pile.  29.  While  he  was  thus  piously  employed, 
he  was  accosted  by  an  old  Roman  soldier,  who  had  served 
under  Pompey  in  his  youth.  "  Who  art  thou  ?"  said  he, 


THE    COMMONWEALTH.  215 

"  that  art  making  these  humble  preparations  for  Pompey's 
funeral  ?"— "  One  of  his  freedmen,"  answered  Philip.— 
"  Alas,"  replied  the  soldier,  "  permit  me  to  share  with  you 
the  honour  of  this  sacred  action.  Among  all  the  miseries 
of  my  exile,  it  will  be  my  last  sad  comfort,  that  I  have  been 
able  to  assist  at  the  funeral  of  my  old  commander,  and  to 
touch  the  body  of  the  bravest  general  that  ever  Rome 
produced." 

30.  Thus  were  the  last  rites  performed  to  Pompey.  But 
his  ashes  (according  to  Plutarch)  were  carefully  collected, 
and  carried  to  Corne'lia,  who  deposited  them  at  his  villa 
near  Alba,  in  Italy.  31.  We  are  told,  too,  that  the  Egyptians 
afterwards  erected  a  monument  to  him,  on  the  spot  on  which 
his  funeral  pile  had  been  raised,  with  an  inscription  to  this 
purpose  : — "  How  poor  a  tomb  covers  the  man  who  once 
had  temples  erected  to  his  honour  !" 

32.  From  Pompey's  death  we  may  date  the  extinction  of 
the  republic.  From  this  period  the  senate  was  dispossessed 
of  its  power ;  and  Rome  henceforward  was  never  without 
a  master. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  was  Cffisar  affected  by  the  result  of  the  battle  1 

2.  What  appearance  did  Pompey's  camp  present  1 

3.  Did  Caesar's  troops  immediately  begin  to  plunder  1 

4.  What  became  of  the  fugitives? 

5.  Did  they  succeed  in  the  attempt  ? 

6.  Were  the  labours  of  Casar's  soldiers  now  at  an  end  1 

7.  What  effect  had  this  on  the  fugitives  ? 

8.  Was  this  victory  of  importance,  and  what  was  the  loss  on  both  situr 

9.  In  what  manner  did  Caesar  behave  to  the  vanquished  ? 

10.  What  followed  ? 

11.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Pompey  on  this  occasion  1 

1 2.  Mention  your  reasons  for  this  assertion  1 

13.  Proceed  in  relating  farther  particulars! 

14.  Whither  did  he  next  steer  his  course  1 

15.  16.  What  effect  had  the  tidings  on  Cornelia  1 

17.  Relate  what  passed  at  their  interview  ? 

1 8.  How  did  Pompey  attempt  to  comfort  her  1 

19.  What  determination  did  he  now  form! 

20.  What  was  his  intended  reception  1 

21.  Did  Pompey  fall  into  the  snare? 

22.  Was  his  separation  from  his  wife  a  painful  one  ! 

23.  What  passed  in  the  boat  ? 

24.  Were  Cornelia's  hopes  well  founded  ? 


216  HISTORY   OF    ROME 

25.  Did  Pompey  resist  this  treacherous  attack  ] 

26.  Was  Cornelia  a  witness  to  this  horrid  transaction  ? 

27.  How  was  the  hody  of  Pompey  treated  ? 

28.  Had  he  no  friend  to  perform  the  last  offices  for  him  ? 

29.  By  whom  was  he  assisted? 

30.  What  became  of  his  remains  ? 

31.  What  respect  did  the  Egyptians  afterwards  pay  to  his  memory! 

32.  What  was  the  face  of  affairs  after  Pompey's  death  1 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM    THE    DESTRUCTION    OF    THE    COMMONWEALTH,    TO   TUB 
ESTABLISHMENT     OF     THE     FIRST     EMPEROR,    AUGUSTUS. 

v.  c.  706.   A    t 

(pfi  •  v  i 

1.  CAESAR  has  been  much  celebrated  for  his  good  fortune, 
but  his  abilities  seem  equal  to  the  highest  success.  He 
possessed  shining  qualities,  tarnished  by  ambition  only. 
His  talents  were  such  as  would  have  rendered  him  victori- 
ous at  the  head  of  any  army ;  and  he  would  have  governed 
in  any  republic  that  had  given  him  birth.  2.  Having  now 
gained  a  most  complete  victory,  his  success  seemed  only  to 
increase  his  activity,  and  inspire  him  with  fresh  resolution 
to  face  new  dangers.  He  determined,  therefore,  to  pursue 
his  "last  advantage,  and  follow  Pompey  to  whatever  country 
he  had  retired ;  convinced  that,  though  he  might  gain  new 
triumphs,  he  should  never  enjoy  security  until  his  rival  was 
in  his  power. 

t  3.  Accordingly,  losing  no  time,  he  set  sail  for  Egypt, 
and  arrived  at  Alexandria  with  about  four  thousand  men  :  a 
very  inconsiderable  force  to  keep  so  powerful  a  kingdom 
under  subjection.  4.  The  first  accounts  he  received  were 
of  Pompey's  miserable  end ;  and  soon  after,  one  of  the 
murderers  came  with  his  head  and  his  ring,  as  a  most 
grateful  present  to  the  conqueror.  5.  But  Caesar  had  too 
much  humanity  to  be  pleased  with  so  horrid  a  spectacle — 
with  the  sad  remains  of  the  man  he  once  loved  ;  his  partner 
in  power.  He  turned  from  it  with  disgust ;  and,  after  a 
short  pause,  gave  vent  to  his  pity  in  a  flood  of  tears.  He 
ordered  the  head  to  be  burned  with  the  most  costly  per- 


THE    EMPIRE.  217 

fumes,  and  placed  the  ashes  in  a  temple,  which  he  built  and 
dedicated  to  the  goddess  Nem'esis,  the  avenger  of  cruel  and 
inhuman  deeds. 

6.  It  should  seem  that  the  Egyptians,  by  this  time,  had 
some  hopes  of  breaking  off  all  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
which  they  considered,  as  in  fact  it  was,  only  another  name 
for  subjection.  They  first  took  offence  at  Caesar's  carrying 
the  ensigns  of  Roman  power  before  him  as  he  entered  the 
city.  Photi'nus  also  treated  him  with  great  disrespect,  and 
even  attempted  his  life.  7.  Caesar,  however,  concealed  his 
resentment  till  he  had  a  force  sufficient  to  punish  his  treach- 
ery ;  sending,  therefore,  privately,  for  the  legions  which  he 
had  formerly  enrolled  for  Pompey's  service,  as  being  the 
nearest  to  Egypt,  he,  in  the  mean  time,  pretended  to  repose 
an  entire  confidence  in  the  king's  ministers,  making  great 
entertainments,  and  assisting  at  the  conferences  of  the  philo- 
sophers, who  were  numerous  at  Alexan'dria.  8.  However, 
he  soon  changed  his  manner,  when  he  found  himself  in  no 
danger  from  the  ministers'  attempts :  and  declared,  that, 
being  a  Roman  consul,  it  was  his  duty  to  settle  the  succes- 
sion of  the  Egyptian  crown. 

9.  There  were  at  that  time  two  pretenders  to  the  crown 
of  Egypt ;  Ptol'emy,  the  acknowledged  king,  and  the  cele- 
brated Cleopa'tra,  his  sister,  to  whom,  by  the  custom  of  the 
country,  he  was  married ;  and  who,  by  his  father's  will, 
shared  jointly  in  the  succession.  10.  Not  contented  with 
the  participation  of  power,  Cleopa'tra  aimed  at  governing 
alone  ;  but  being  opposed  in  her  views  by  the  Roman  sen- 
ate, who  confirmed  her  brother's  title  to  the  crown,  she  was 
banished  into  Sy'ria,  with  Arsin'oe,  her  younger  sister. 
11.  Caesar  gave  her  new  hopes  of  aspiring  to  the  kingdom, 
and  sent  both  to  her  and  her  brother  to  plead  their  cause 
before  him.  But  Photi'nus,  the  young  king's  guardian, 
disdaining  to  accept  this  proposal,  backed  his  refusal  by 
sending  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men  to  besiege  him  in 
Alexandria.  12.  Crcsar  bravely  repulsed  the  enemy ;  but 
finding  the  city  of  too  great  extent  to  be  defended  by  so 
small  an  army  as  his,  he  retired  to  the  palace,  which  com- 
manded the  harbour,  and  there  purposed  to  make  his  stand. 
13.  Achil'las,  who  commanded  the  Egyptians,  attacked  him 
with  great  vigour,  and  aimed  at  making  himself  master  of 
the  fleet  that  lay  before  the  palace.  14.  Caesar,  however, 
too  well  knew  the  importance  of  those  ships  in  the  hands 
of  an  enemy ;  and  therefore  burnt  them  all,  in  spite  of  every 

T 


218  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

effort  to  prevent  him.  He  next  possessed  himself  of  the  isle 
of  Pha'ros,  by  which  lie  was  enabled  to  receive  supplies  ; 
and,  in  this  situation,  determined  to  withstand  the  united 
force  of  the  Egyptians.* 

15.  In  the  mean  time,  Cleopa'tra,  having  heard  of  the 
present  turn  in  her  favour,  resolved  to  depend  on  Caesar's 
patronage  for  gaining  the  government,  rather  than  on  her 
own  forces.  But  no  arts,  as  she  justly  conceived,  were  so 
likely  to  influence  Caesar  as  the  charms  of  her  person, 
which  Avere  irresistible.  16.  She  was  now  in  the  bloom 
of  youth  and  beauty,  while  every  feature  borrowed  grace 
from  the  lively  turn  of  her  temper.  To  the  most  enchant- 
ing address  she  joined  the  most  harmonious  voice.  With 
all  these  accomplishments,  she  possessed  a  great  share  of 
the  learning  of  the  times,  and  could  give  audience  to  the 
ambassadors  of  seven  different  nations  without  an  interpre- 
ter. 17.  The  difficulty  was,  how  to  gain  admission  to 
CaJsar,  as  her  enemies  were  in  possession  of  all  the  avenues 
that  led  to  the  palace.  For  this  purpose  she  went  on  board 
a  small  vessel,  and,  in  the  evening,  landed  near  the  palace  ; 
where,  being  wrapt  up  in  a  coverlet,  she  was  carried  as  a 
bundle  of  clothes  into  the  very  presence  of  Caesar.  18.  Her 
address  instantly  struck  him  ;  her  wit  and  understanding 
fanned  the  flame ;  but  her  affability  entirely  brought  him 
over  to  second  her  claims. 

19.  While  Cleopa'tra  was  thus  employed  in  forwarding 
her  own  views,  her  sister,  Arsin'oe  was  also  strenuously  en- 
gaged in  the  camp,  in  pursuing  a  separate  interest.  She  had 
found  means,  by  the  assistance  of  one  Gan'ymede,  her  con- 
fidant, to  make  a  large  division  in  the  Egyptian  army  in  her 
favour ;  and,  soon  after,  by  one  of  those  sudden  revolutions 
which  are  common  in  barbarian  camps  to  this  day,  she 
caused  Achillas  to  be  murdered,  and  Gan'ymede  to  take  the 
command  in  his  stead,  and  to  carry  on  the  siege  with  greater 
vigour  than  before.  20.  Gan'ymede's  principal  effort  Avas 
by  letting  in  the  sea  upon  those  canals  Avhich  supplied  the 
palace  with  fresh  Avater ;  but  this  inconvenience  Caesar  re- 
medied by  digging  a  great  number  of  wells.  His  next  en- 
deavour was  to  prevent  the  junction  of  Caesar's  tAventy- 
fourth  legion,  Avhich  he  tAvice  attempted  in  vain.  •  He  soon 
after  made  himself  master  of  a  bridge  which  joined  the  isle 

*  In  this  contest  the  famous  Alexan'drian  library,  consisting,  it  i» 
•aid,  of  700,000  volumes,  was  accidentally  burnt. 


THE    EMPIRE.  219 

of  Pha'ros  to  the  continent,  from  which  post  Caesar  was  re- 
solved to  dislodge  him.  21.  In  the  heat  of  the  action,  some 
mariners,  partly  through  curiosity,  and  partly  through  am- 
bition, came  and  joined  the  combatants ;  but,  being  seized 
with  a  panic,  instantly  fled,  and  spread  a  general  terror 
through  the  army.  All  Caesar's  endeavours  to  rally  his  forces 
were  in  vain,  the  confusion  was  past  remedy,  and  numbers 
were  drowned  or  put  to  the  sword  in  attempting  to  escape 
22.  Now,  therefore,  seeing  the  irremediable  disorder  of  his 
troops,  he  fled  to  a  ship,  in  order  to  get  to  the  palace  that 
was  just  opposite ;  but  he  was  no  sooner  on  board,  than 
such  crowds  entered  after  him,  that  being  apprehensive  of 
the  ship's  sinking,  lie  jumped  into  the  sea,  and  swam  two 
hundred  paces  to  the  fleet  which  lay  before  the  palace,  all 
the  time  holding  his  Commentaries  in  his  left  hand  above 
the  water,  and  his  coat  of  mail  in  his  teeth. 

23.  The  Alexandrians,  finding  their  efforts  to  take  the 
palace  ineffectual,  endeavoured  at  least  to  get  their  king  out 
of  Caesar's  power,  as  he  had  seized  upon  his  person  in  the 
beginning  of  their  disputes.  For  this  purpose  they  made 
use  of  their  customary  arts  of  dissimulation,  professing  the 
utmost  desire  of  peace,  and  only  wanting  the  presence  ol 
their  lawful  prince  to  give  a  sanction  to  the  treaty.  24.  Cae 
sar  was  sensible  of  their  perfidy,  but  concealed  his  suspicions, 
and  gave  them  their  king,  as  he  was  under  no  apprehensions 
from  the  abilities  of  a  boy.  Ptol'emy,  however,  the  instant 
lie  was  set  at  liberty,  instead  of  promoting  the  peace,  made 
every  effort  to  give  vigour  to  his  hostilities. 

25.  In  this  manner  was  Caesar  hemmed  in  for  some  time 
by  an  artful  and  insidious  enemy,  and  surrounded  with  al- 
most insurmountable  difficulties  ;  but  he  was  at  last  relieved 
from  this  mortifying  situation  by  Mithrida'tes  Pergame'nus, 
one  of  his  most  faithful  partizans,  who  came  with  an  army 
to  his  assistance.  This  general  marched  into  Egypt,  took 
the  city  of  Pelu'sium,  repulsed  the  Egyptian  army  with 
loss,  and,  at  last,  joining  with  Caesar,  attacked  their  camp 
with  a  great  slaughter  of  the  Egyptians.  Ptol'emy  himself, 
attempting  to  escape  on  board  a  vessel,  was  drowned  by  the 
ship's  sinking.  26.  Caesar  thus  became  master  of  all  Egypt, 
without  any  farther  opposition.  He  appointed  Cleopa'tra, 
with  her  younger  brother,  who  was  then  an  infant,  joint 
governors,  according  to  the  intent  of  their  father's  will, 
and  drove  out  Arsin'oe,  with  Gan'ymede,  to  banishment.  « 

27.  Having  thus  given  away  kingdoms,  he  now,  foi  A 


220  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

while,  seemed  to  relax  from  the  usual  activity  of  his  conductf 
being  captivated  M'ith  the  charms  of  Cleopa'tra.  Instead  of 
quitting  Egypt  to  go  and  quell  the  remains  of  Pompey's  party, 
he  abandoned  himself  to  his  pleasures,  passing  whole  nights 
in  feasting  with  the  young  queen.  He  even  resolved  on  at- 
tending her  up  the  Nile,  into  Ethiopia ;  but  the  brave  vete- 
rans, who  had  long  followed  his  fortune,  boldly  reprehended 
his  conduct,  and  refused  to  be  partners  in  so  infamous  an 
expedition.  23.  Thus  at  length  roused  from  his  lethargy, 
he  resolved  to  prefer  the  call  of  ambition  to  that  of  love  ; 
and  to  leave  Cleopa'tra,  in  order  to  oppose  Pharna'ces,  the 
king  of  Bosphorus,  who  had  made  some  inroads  upon  the 
dominions  of  Rome  in  the  East. 

29.  This  prince,  who  had  cruelly  deposed  his  father,  the 
great  Mithrida'tes,  being  ambitious  of  conquering  those  do- 
minions, seized  upon  Arme'nia  and  Col'chis,  and  overcame 
Domit'ius,  who  had  been  sent  against  him.  30.  Upon  Cae- 
sar's march  to  oppose  him,  Pharna'ces,  who  was  as  much 
terrified  at  the  name  of  the  general  as  at  the  strength  of  his 
army,  laboured,  by  all  the  arts  of  negociation,  to  avert  the 
impending  danger.  31.  Caesar,  exasperated  at  his  crimes 
and  ingratitude,  at  first  dissembled  with  the  ambassadors ; 
and  using  all  expedition,  fell  upon  the  enemy  unexpectedly, 
and,  in  a  few  hours,  obtained  an  easy  and  complete  victory. 
Pharna'ces  attempting  to  take  refuge  in  his  capital,  was  slain 
by  one  of  his  own  commanders — a  just  punishment  for  his 
former  parricide.  Csesar  achieved  this  conquest  with  so 
much  ease,  that  in  writing  to  a  friend  at  Rome,  he  expressed 
the  rapidity  of  his  victory  in  three  words,  "  VENI,  VIDI, 
vici."*  A  man  so  accustomed  to  conquest  might,  perhaps, 
think  a  slight  battle  scarcely  worth  a  long  letter ;  though  it 
is  more  probable  that  these  memorable  words  were  dictated 
rather  by  vanity  than  indifference. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  were  the  abilities  and  character  of  Czsar  1 
2    Did  he  rest  satisfied  with  his  present  successes  1 

3.  Whither  did  he  steer  his  course  ? 

4.  What  occurred  on  his  arrival  ? 

5.  Was  Caesar  pleased  with  this  spectacle  ? 

*  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 


THE    EMPIRE.  221 

6.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Egyptians  towards  Caesar  ! 

7.  Did  Caesar  resent  this  conduct  1 

8.  Did  he  continue  this  appearance  of  confidence  ! 

9.  Who  were  at  this  time  the  sovereigns  of  Egypt  ! 

10.  What  rendered  Caesar's  interference  necessary  1 

1 1.  Was  this  interference  agreeable  to  the  Egyptians! 

12.  How  did  Caesar  conduct  himself  on  this  occasion] 

13.  Was  the  attack  formidable  1 

14.  How  did  Caesar  prevent  the  designs  of  the  enemy  1 

15.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Cleopatra  T 

16.  What  attractions  did  she  possess  1 

17.  What  obstacles  presented  themselves,  and  how  were  they  over- 

come ? 

18.  Was  Caesar  captivated  by  her  charms  1 

19.  What  measures  did  Arsinoc  pursue  1 

20.  What  attempts  did  the  enemy  make  to  annoy  Caesar,  and  how  were 

they  frustrated  1 

21.  What  unlucky  accident  occasioned   the   miscarriage  of  Cesai's 

design  ! 

22.  How  did  Caesar  escape  ? 

23.  What  did  the  Alexandrians  next  attempt  1 

24.  Did  Cesar  comply  with  their  wishes  1 

25.  How  was  Caesar  delivered  from  this  dangerous  situation! 

26.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  victory  ! 

27.  Did  Caesar  pursue  his  career  of  victory  ! 

28.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  boldness  ! 

29.  What  farther  cause  of  offence  had  Pharnaces  given  ! 

30.  Did  Pharnaces  boldly  oppose  the  invader  1 

31.  Did  he  succeed? 


SECTION  II. 

1.  CAESAR,  having  settled  affairs  in  this  part  of  the  empire, 
embarked  for  Italy,  where  he  arrived  sooner  than  his  ene- 
mies could  expect,  but  not  before  his  presence  there  was 
absolutely  required.  2.  During  his  absence,  he  had  been 
created  consul  for  five  years,  dictator  for  one  year,  and 
tribune  of  the  people  for  life.  3.  But  Antony,  who  in  the 
mean  time  governed  for  him  in  Rome,  had  filled  the  city 
with  riot  and  debauchery,  and  many  commotions  ensued, 
which  nothing  but  the  arrival  of  Caesar  could  appease. 
4.  By  his  moderation  and  humanity  he  soon  restored  tran- 
quillity to  the  city,  scarcely  making  any  distinction  between 
those  of  his  own  and  the  opposite  party.  5.  Having,  by 
gentle  means,  restored  his  authority  at  home,  he  prepared 
to  march  into  Africa,  where  Pompey's  party  had  found  time 
T  2 


222  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

to  rally  under  Scipio  and  Cato,  assisted  by  Juba,  king  of 
Maurita'nia ;  and,  with  his  usual  diligence,  landed  Avith  a 
small  party  in  Africa,  while  the  rest  of  his  army  followed 
him.  6.  Scipio  coming  to  a  battle  soon  after,  received  a 
complete  and  final  overthrow,  with  little  or  no  loss  on  the 
side  of  the  victor.  Juba,  and  Petrei'us  his  general,  killed 
each  other  in  despair.  Scipio,  attempting  to  escape  by  sea 
into  Spain,  fell  in  among  the  enemy,  and  was  slain ;  so  that 
of  all  the  generals  of  that  undone  party,  Cato  was  now  the 
only  one  that  remained. 

7.  This  extraordinary  man,  whom  prosperity  could  not 
elate,  nor  misfortunes  depress,  having  retired  into  Africa, 
after  the  battle  of  Pharsa'lia,  had  led  the  wretched  remains 
of  Pompey's  army  through  burning  deserts,  and  tracts  in- 
fested with  serpents  of  various  malignity,  and  was  now  in 
the  city  of  Utica,  which  he  had  been  left  to  defend.  8.  In 
love,  however,  with  the  show  of  Roman  government,  Cato 
had  formed  the  principal  citizens  into  a  senate,  and  con- 
ceived a  resolution  of  holding  out  the  town.  But  the  en- 
thusiasm for  liberty  subsiding  among  his  followers,  he  was 
resolved  no  longer  to  force  men  to  be  free,  who  seemed 
naturally  prone  to  slavery.  9.  He  now,  therefore,  desired 
some  of  his  friends  to  save  themselves  by  sea,  and  bade 
others  submit  to  Cssar's  clemency;  observing,  that,  as  to 
himself,  he  was  at  last  victorious.  After  this,  supping  cheer- 
fully among  his  friends,  he  retired  to  his  apartment,  where 
he  behaved  with  unusual  tenderness  to  his  son,  and  to  all 
his  friends.  When  he  came  into  his  bed-chamber,  laying 
himself  down,  he  took  up  Plato's  Dialogue  on  the  Immor- 
tality of  the  Soul,  and  read  for  some  time.  Casting  his 
eyes  to  the  head  of  his  bed,  he  wondered  much  not  to  see 
his  sword  there,  which  had  been  conveyed  away  by  his 
son's  order  while  they  were  at  supper.  Calling  to  one 
of  his  domestics  to  know  what  was  become  of  it,  and  re- 
ceiving no  answer,  he  resumed  his  studies  ;  and  some  time 
after  asked  again  for  his  sword.  When  he  had  done  read- 
ing, and  perceived  that  nobody  obeyed  hmi,  he  called  for 
his  domestics  one  after  the  other,  and  with  a  peremptory  air 
again  demanded  his  sword.  10.  His  son,  with  tears,  be- 
sought him  to  change  his  resolution ;  but,  receiving  a  stern 
reprimand,  desisted  from  his  persuasions.  His  sword  being 
at  length  brought  to  him,  he  seemed  satisfied,  and  cried  out, 
"  Now,  again,  I  am  master  of  myself."  He  took  up  the 
book  again,  which  having  perused,  h«  fell  into  a  souna 


THE    EMPIRE.  223 

sleep.  Upon  awaking,  he  called  to  one  of  his  freedmcn  to 
know  if  his  friends  were  embarked,  or  if  any  thing  yet  re- 
mained that  could  be  done  to  serve  them.  The  freedman, 
assuring  him  that  all  was  quiet,  was  ordered  to  leave  the 
room.  Cato  no  sooner  found  himself  alone,  than,  seizing 
his  sword,  he  stabbed  himself  below  his  chest.  The  blow 
not  despatching  him,  he  fell  from  his  bed  and  overturned 
a  table,  on  which  he  had  been  drawing  some  geometrical 
figures.  At  the  noise  of  the  fall,  his  servants  shrieked,  and 
his  son  and  friends  immediately  flew  to  the  room.  They 
found  him  weltering  in  his  blood,  with  his  bowels  appearing 
through  the  wound.  11.  The  surgeon,  perceiving  that  his 
intestines  were  not  wounded,  was  replacing  them ;  but  Cato 
recovering1  himself,  and  understanding  their  intention  was  to 
preserve  his  life,  forced  the  surgeon  from  him,  and,  with  a 
fierce  resolution,  tore  out  his  bowels  and  expired. 

12.  Upon  the  death  of  Cato,  the  war  in  Africa  being 
completed,  Caesar  returned  in  such  triumph  to  Rome,  as  if 
he  had  abridged  all  his  former  triumphs  only  to  increase  the 
splendour  of  this.  The  citizens  were  astonished  at  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  procession,  and  at  the  number  of  the  coun- 
tries he  had  subdued.  13.  It  lasted  four  days:  the  first 
was  for  Gaul,  the  second  for  Egypt,  the  third  for  his  victo- 
ries in  Asia,  and  the  fourth  for  that  over  Juba  in  Africa.  His 
veteran  soldiers,  scarred  with  wounds,  and  now  laid  up  for 
life,  followed  their  triumphant  general,  crowned  with  laurels, 
and  conducted  him  to  the  Capitol.  14.  To  every  one  of 
those  he  gave  a  sum  equivalent  to  about  a  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  sterling,  double  that  sum  to  the  centurions,  and  four 
times  as  much  to  the  superior  officers.  The  citizens  also 
shared  his  bounty :  to  every  one  he  distributed  ten  bushels 
of  corn,  ten  pounds  of  oil,  and  a  sum  of  money  equal  to 
about  two  pounds  sterling.  After  this  he  entertained  the 
people  at  above  twenty  thousand  tables,  treated  them  with 
combats  of  gladiators,  and  filled  Rome  with  a  concourse  of 
spectators  from  every  part  of  Italy. 

15.  The  people,  intoxicated  with  pleasure,  thought  their 
freedom  too  small  a  return  for  such  benefits.  They  seemed 
eager  only  to  find  out  new  modes  of  homage,  and  unusual 
epithets  of  adulation  for  their  great  enslaver.  He  was  cre- 
ated, by  a  new  title,  Magis'ter  Mo' rum,  or  Master  of  the 
Morals  of  the  People.  He  received  the  title  of  Emperor 
and  father  of  his  country.  His  person  was  declared  sacred ; 
and,  in  short,  upon  him  alone  were  devolved  for  life  all  the 


224  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

great  (fixities  of  the  state.  16.  It  must  be  owned,  that  so 
much  power  could  never  have  been  entrusted  to  better  keep- 
ing. He  immediately  began  his  empire  by  repressing  vice 
and  encouraging  virtue.  He  committed  the  power  of  judi- 
cature to  the  senators  and  knights  alone ;  and  by  many 
sumptuary  laws  restrained  the  scandalous  luxuries  of  the 
rich.  He  proposed  rewards  to  all  such  as  had  many  chil- 
dren, and  took  the  most  prudent  method  of  re-peopling  the 
city,  which  had  been  exhausted  in  the  late  commotions. 

17.  Having  thus  restored  prosperity  once  more  to  Rome, 
he  again  found  himself  under  a  necessity  of  going  into 
Spain  to  oppose  an  army  which  had  been  raised  there  under 
the  two  sons  of  Pompey,  and  Labie'nus  his  former  general. 
18.  He  proceeded  in  this  expedition  with  his  usual  celerity, 
and  arrived  in  Spain  before  the  enemy  thought  him  yet  de- 
parted from  Rome.  Cne'ius  Pompey,  and  Sextus,  Pom- 
pey's  sons,  profiting  by  their  unhappy  father's  example,  re- 
solved, as  much  as  possible,  to  protract  the  war  ;  so  that  the 
first  operations  of  the  two  armies  were  spent  in  sieges  and 
fruitless  attempts  to  surprise  each  other.  19.  However, 
Caesar,  after  taking  many  cities  from  the  enemy,  and  pursu- 
ing his  adversary  with  unwearied  perseverance,  at  last  com- 
pelled him  to  come  to  a  battle  upon  the  plain  of  Munda. 
20.  Pompey  drew  up  his  men,  by  break  of  day,  upon  the 
declivity  of  a  hill,  with  great  exactness  and  order.  Caesar 
drew  up  likewise  in  the  plains  below ;  and  after  advancing 
a  little  way  from  his  trenches,  ordered  his  men  to  make  a 
halt,  expecting  the  enemy  to  come  down  from  the  hill.  This 
delay  made  Caasar's  soldiers  begin  to  murmur ;  while  Pom- 
pey's  with  full  vigour  poured  down  upon  them,  and  a  dread- 
ful conflict  ensued.  21.  The  first  shock  was  so  dreadful, 
that  Caesar's  men,  who  had  hitherto  been  used  to  conquer, 
now  began  to  waver.  C<esar  was  never  in  so  much  danger 
as  now  ;  he  threw  himself  several  times  into  the  very  thick- 
est of  the  battle.  "  What,"  cried  he,  "  are  you  going  to  give 
up  to  a  parcel  of  boys  your  general,  who  is  grown  grey  in 
fighting  at  your  head  ?"  22.  Upon  this,  his  tenth  legion 
exerted  themselves  with  more  than  usual  bravery ;  and  a 
party  of  horse  being  detached  by  Labie'nus  from  the  camp 
in  pursuit  of  a  body  of  Numid'ian  cavalry,  Caesar  cried 
aloud  that  they  were  flying.  This  cry  instantly  spread  it- 
self through  both  armies,  exciting  the  one  as  much  as  it  de- 
pressed the  other.  23.  Now,  therefore,  the  tenth  legion  press- 
ed forward,  and  a  total  rout  soon  ensued.  Thirty  thousand 


THE    EMPIRE.  225 

men  were  killed  on  Cne'ius  Pompey's  side,  and  amongst 
them  Labie'nus,  whom  Caesar  ordered  to  be  buried  with  the 
funeral  honours  of  a  general  officer.  Cne'ius  Pompey  es- 
c?ped  with  a  few  horsemen  to  the  seaside  ;  but  finding  his 
passage  intercepted  by  Caesar's  lieutenant,  he  was  obliged  to 
seek  for  a  retreat  in  an  obscure  cavern.  He  was  quickly 
discovered  by  some  of  Caesar's  troops,  who  presently  cut  off 
his  head,  and  brought  it  to  the  conqueror.  His  brother  Sex 
tus,  however,  concealed  himself  so  well,  that  he  escaped  all 
pursuit ;  and  afterwards,  from  his  piracies,  became  noted 
and  formidable  to  the  people  of  Rome. 

24.  Caesar,  by  this  last  blow,  subdued  all  his  avowed  ene- 
mies ;  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was  employed  for  the  advan- 
tage of  the  state.  He  adorned  the  city  with  magnificent 
buildings  ;  he  rebuilt  Carthage  and  Corinth,  sending  colo- 
nies to  both  cities :  he  undertook  to  level  several  mountains 
in  Italy,  to  drain  the  Pontine  marshes  near  Rome ;  and  he 
designed  to  cut  through  the  Isthmus  of  Peloponne'sus.  25. 
Thns,  with  a  mind  that  could  never  remain  inactive,  he  pon- 
dered mighty  projects  and  schemes,  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
longest  life  ;  but  the  greatest  of  all  was  his  intended  expe- 
dition against  the  Parthians,  by  which  he  designed  to  revenge 
the  death  of  Crassus,  who  having  penetrated  too  far  into  their 
country,  was  overthrown,  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  a  cruel 
death,  by  having  molten  gold  poured  down  his  throat,  as  a 
punishment  for  his  former  avarice.  From  Parthia,  Caesar  in- 
tended to  pass  through  Hyrca'nia,  and  enter  Scyth'ia,  along 
m^banks  of  the  Caspian  sea  ;  then  to  open  a  way  through 
the  immeasurable  forests  of  Germany  into  Gaul,  and  so  to 
return  to  Rome.  These  were  the  aims  of  ambition  ;  but  the 
jealousy  of  a  few  individuals  put  an  end  to  them  all. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  Czesar's  next  step? 

2.  What  honours  were  awarded  him  in  his  absence  ? 

3.  What  was  the  conduct  of  his  deputy  1 

4.  How  did  he  put  an  end  to  these  disturbances  7 
6.  What  was  his  next  cnterpri.se  ? 

6.  What  was  the  success  of  the  campaign  ? 

7.  How  was  Cato  situated  ? 

8.  What  measure  had  he  pursued  ? 

!l.  Wlu-n  all  hope  had  forsaken  him,  what  was  his  conduct  T 
10.  Was  no  effort  made  to  change  his  resolution,  and  what  followed  1 


2C3  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

1 1.  Was  the  wound  mortal  ? 

12.  What  happened  after  the  death  of  Cato  ? 

13.  Describe  the  triumph. 

14.  Was  not  Cssar  extremely  liberal1? 

15.  What  returns  were  made  for  this  extraordinary  liberality  1 

16.  Was  he  deserving  of  these  honours? 

17.  Was  he  destined  to  pass  the  rest  of  his  life  in  tranquillity  1 

18.  Describe  the  opening  of  the  campaign! 

19.  Were  the  sons  of  Pompey  successful  in  their  attempts  ] 

20.  What  were  the  dispositions  of  the  two  armies  1 

21.  What  memorable  expression  did  the  danger  of  the  conflict  draw 

from  Ctesar  1 

22.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  exclamation  ? 

23.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  1 

24.  In  what  manner  did  Ctesar  employ  himself  at  this  time  1 

25.  What  were  his  most  important  resolutions  1 


SECTION  IH. 

1.  C^SAR  having  been  made  perpetual  dictator,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  senate  accumulated  honours,  it  began  to  be 
rumoured  that  he  intended  to  make  himself  king.  In  fact, 
he  was  possessed  of  the  power ;  but  the  people,  who  had 
an  aversion  to  the  name,  could  not  bear  his  assuming  the 
title.  2.  Whether  he  really  designed^ to  assume  that  empty 
honour,  must  for  ever  remain  a  secret ;  but  certain  it  is,  that 
the  unsuspecting  openness  of  his  conduct  created  something 
like  confidence  in  the  innocence  of  his  intentions.  3.  WMlL 
informed  by  those  about  him  of  the  jealousies  of  many  wTO 
envied  his  power,  he  was  heard  to  say,  that  he  would  rather 
die  once  by  treason,  than  live  continually  in  the  apprehen- 
sion of  it.  When  advised  by  some  to  beware  of  Brutus,  in 
whom  he  had  for  some  time  reposed  the  greatest  confidence, 
he  opened  his  breast,  all  scarred  with  wounds,  saying, 
"  Do  you  think  Brutus  cares  for  such  poor  pillage  as  this?" 
and,  being  one  night  at  supper,  as  his  friends  disputed  among 
themselves  what  death  was  easiest,  he  replied,  "  That  which 
is  most  sudden  and  least  foreseen."  But,  to  convince  the 
world  how  little  he  apprehended  from  his  enemies,  he  dis- 
banded his  Spanish  guards,  and  thus  facilitated  the  enter- 
prise against  his  life. 

4.  A  deep  conspiracy  was  now  laid  against  him,  into 
which  no  less  than  sixty  senators  entered.  They  were  still 
the  more  formidable,  as  the  generality  of  them  were  of  his 


THE    EMPIRE. 


22? 


Brutui  and  Ciuiui  compirinj  igiinit  CKUIX 

party  ;  and,  having  been  raised  above  other  citizens, 
fert  more  strongly  the  weight  of  a  single  superior.  At  the 
head  of  this  conspiracy  were  Brutus,  whose  life  Caesar  had 
spared  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  and  Cassius,  who  was 
pardoned  soon  after  ;  both  praetors  for  the  present  year.  5. 
Brutus  made  it  his  chief  glory  to  have  descended  from  that 
Brutus  who  first  gave  liberty  to  Rome.  The  passion  for 
freedom  seemed  to  have  been  transmitted  to  him  with  the 
blood  of  his  ancestors.  But,  though  he  detested  tyranny, 
yet  could  he  not  forbear  loving  the  tyrant  from  whom  he 
had  received  the  most  signal  benefits. 

6.  The  conspirators,  to  give  a  colour  of  justice  to  their 
proceedings,  put  off  the  execution  of  their  design  to  the  ide 
of  March,*  the  day  on  which  Caesar  was  to  be  offered  the 
crown.  7.  The  augurs  had  foretold  that  this  day  would  be 
fatal  to  him.  The  night  preceding  he  heard  his  Avife,  Cal- 
phur'nia,  lamenting  in  her  sleep.  Being  awakened,  she 
confessed  to  him,  that  she  dreamt  of  his  being  assassinated 
in  her  arms.  8.  These  omens,  in  some  measure,  began  to 
change  his  intention  of  going  to  the  senate ;  but  one  of  the 

*  The  Romans  divided  their  months  into  three  parts ;  namely,  Ca- 
lends. Nones,  and  Ides  ;  all  which  they  reckoned  backwards.  The  Idea 
were  always  eight  in  number.  The  Nones  sometimes  four,  at  others 
six.  The  Calends  varied  according  to  the  length  of  the  month,  and  also 
with  the  Nones,  as  they  were  four  or  six.  The  Calends  always  be-jan 
on  the  first  of  every  month,  and  were  counted  backwards  to  the  Ides, 
whir-h  fell  on  the  15th  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October  ;  and  on  the 
13th  of  other  months  ;  so  that  the  Nones  began  on  the  f.th  of  each  month 
when  four,  and  on  the  7tli  when  six  in  number.  The  Nones,  tlu'iv- 
fore,  always  ended  on  the  2d  day  of  the  month. 


228  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

conspirators  coining  in,  prevailed  upon  him  to  keep  his  le- 
solution,  telling  him  of  the  reproach  that  would  attend  his 
staying  at  home  till  his  wife  should  have  lucky  dreams,  and 
of  the  preparations  that  were  made  for  his  appearance.  9. 
As  he  went  along  to  the  senate,  a  slave  who  hastened  to 
him  with  information  of  the  conspiracy,  attempted  to  come 
near  him,  but  was  prevented  by  the  crowd.  Artemido'rus, 
a  Greek  philosopher,  who  had  discovered  the  whole  plot, 
delivered  him  a  memorial,  containing  the  heads  of  his  in- 
formation ;  but  Caesar  gave  it,  with  other  papers,  to  one  of 
his  secretaries,  without  reading,  as  was  usual  in  matters  of 
this  nature.  Having  at  length  entered  the  senate-house, 
where  the  conspirators  were  prepared  to  receive  him,  he 
met  one  Spuri'na,  an  augur,  who  had  foretold  his  danger,  to 
whom  he  said  smiling,  "  Well,  Spuri'na,  the  ides  of  March 
are  come." — "  Yes,"  replied  the  augur,  "but  they  are  not 
yet  gone."  10.  No  sooner  had  he  taken  his  place,  than 
the  conspirators  approached,  under  pretence  of  saluting  him  : 
Cimber,  who  was  one  of  them,  in  a  suppliant  posture,  pre- 
tended to  sue  for  his  brother's  pardon,  who  had  been  ban- 
ished by  Caesar's  order.  The  conspirators  seconded  him 
with  great  earnestness ;  and  Cimber,  seeming  to  sue  with 
still  greater  submission,  took  hold  of  the  bottom  of  his  robe  ; 
holding  him,  so  as  to  prevent  his  rising.  11.  This  was  the 
signal  agreed  on  ;  when  Casca,  who  was  behind,  instantly 
stabbed  him  in  the  shoulder.  Caesar  sprung  around,  and, 

ith  the  steel  of  his  tablet,  wounded  him  in  the  arm.  The 
conspirators  were  all  alarmed  ;  when,  being  inclosed  round, 
he  received  a  second  stab,  from  an  unseen  hand,  in  the 
breast ;  while  Cassius  wounded  him  in  the  face.  He  still 
defended  himself  with  great  vigour,  rushing  among  them, 
and  throwing  down  such  as  opposed  him,  till  he  saw  Brutus 
among  the  conspirators,  who,  coming  up,  struck  his  dagger 
into  his  thigh.  12.  Caesar,  from  that  moment,  thought  no 
more  of  defending  himself;  but,  looking  upon  Brutus,  cried 
out,  "  Et  tu  Brute!'1'' — And  you  too,  O  Brutus  !  Then  cov- 
ering his  head,  and  spreading  his  robe  before  him,  in  order 
to  fall  with  decency,  he  sunk  down  at  the  base  of  Pompey's 
statue  :  after  having  received  three  and  twenty  wounds,  from 
those  whom  he  vainly  supposed  he  had  disarmed  by  his 
benefits. 

13.  Caesar  was  killed  in  his  fifty-sixth  year,  and  about 


u.  c. }    fourteen  years  after  he  had  begun  the  conquest  of 
709-5 


the  world.    14.  If  we  examine  his  history,  we  shall 


THE    EMPIRE.  229 


Death  of  Juliui  Ccar. 

be  at  a  loss  whether  most  to  admire  his  great  abilities,  or 
his  wonderful  fortune.  To  pretend  to  say,  that  from  the 
beginning  he  planned  the  subjection  of  his  native  country, 
is  doing  no  great  credit  to  his  well-known  penetration,  as  a 
thousand  obstacles  lay  in  his  way,  which  fortune,  rather 
than  conduct,  was  to  surmount ;  no  man,  therefore,  of  his 
sagacity,  would  have  begun  a  scheme  in  which  the  chances 
of  succeeding  were  so  many  against  him.  It  is  most  pro- 
bable that,  like  all  very  successful  men,  he  made  the  best  of 
every  occurrence ;  and  his  ambition  rising  with  his  good 
fortune,  from  at  first  being  content  with  humbler  aims,  he  at 
last  began  to  think  of  governing  the  world,  when  he  found 
scarcely  any  obstacle  to  oppose  his  designs.  Such  is  the 
disposition  of  man,  whose  cravings  after  power  are  then 
most  insatiable  when  he  enjoys  the  greater  share.* 

16.  As  soon  as  the  conspirators  had  despatched  Caesar, 
they  retired  to  the  Capitol,  and  guarded  its  accesses  by  a 
body  of  gladiators  which  Brutus  had  in  pay. 

17.  The  friends  of  the  late  dictator  now  began  to  find 
that  this  was  the  time  for  coming  into  greater  power  than 
before,  and  for  satisfying  their  ambition  under  the  pretence 
of  promoting  justice:  of  this  number  was  Antony.   18.  He 
was  a  man   of  moderate  abilities,  of  excessive  vices,  am- 

'  *  Though  Caesar's  ambition  led  him  to  usurp  a  power  to  which  the 
Romans  were  not  willing  to  submit,  it  appears  that  he  used  it  with  un- 
exampled moderation.  He  was  beloved  and  revered  by  the  people, 
honoured  and  almost  adored  by  his  friends,  and  esteemed  and  admired 
even  by  his  enemies.  Absolute  power  could  not  have  been  in  better 
bunds. 

u 


230  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

bilious  of  power  only  because  it  gave  his  pleasures  a  wider 
range  to  riot  in  ;  but  skilled  in  war,  to  which  he  had  been 
trained  from  his  youth.*  He  was  consul  for  this  year,  and 
resolved,  with  Lep'idus,  who  like  himself  was  fond  of  com- 
motions, to  seize  this  opportunity  of  gaining  a  power  which 
Caesar  had  died  for  usurping.  Lep'idus,  therefore,  took  pos- 
session of  the  Forum,t  with  a  band  of  soldiers  at  his  de- 
votion ;  and  Antony,  being  consul,  was  permitted  to  com- 
iiiand  them.  19.  Their  first  step  was  to  possess  themselves 
of  Caesar's  papers  and  money,  and  the  next  to  assemble  the 
senate.  20.  Never  had  this  august  assembly  been  con- 
vened upon  so  delicate  an  occasion,  as  to  determine  whether 
Caesar  had  been  a  legal  magistrate,  or  a  tyrannical  usurper ; 
and  whether  those  who  killed  him  merited  rewards  or  pun- 
ishments. Many  of  them  had  received  all  their  promotions 
from  Caesar,  and  had  acquired  large  fortunes  in  consequence 
of  his  appointments  :  to  vote  him  an  usurper,  therefore, 
would  be  to  endanger  their  property  ;  and  yet,  to  vote  him 
innocent,  might  endanger  the  state.  In  this  dilemma  they 
seemed  willing  to  reconcile  extremes  ;  they  approved  all 
the  acts  of  Caesar,  and  yet  granted  a  general  pardon  to  the 
conspirators. 

21.  This  decree  was  very  far  from  giving  Antony  satis- 
faction, as  it  granted  security  to  a  number  of  men  who  were 
the  avowed  enemies  of  tyranny,  and  who  would  be  foremost 
in  opposing  his  schemes  of  restoring  absolute  power.  As, 
therefore,  the  senate  had  ratified  all  Caesar's  acts  without 
distinction,  he  formed  a  plan  of  making  him  rule  when  dead 
as  imperiously  as  he  had  done  when  living.  22.  Being  pos- 
sessed of  Caesar's  books  of  accounts,  he  so  far  gained  over 
his  secretary  as  to  make  him  insert  whatever  he  thought 
proper.  By  these  means,  great  sums  of  money,  which  Cae- 
sar would  never  have  bestowed,  were  distributed  among  the 
people ;  and  every  man  who  had  any  seditious  designs 
against  the  government  was  there  sure  to  find  a  gratuity. 
23.  Things  being  in  this  situation,  Antony  demanded  of  the 
senate  that  Caesar's  funeral  obsequies  should  be  performed. 
This  they  could  not  decently  forbid,  as  they  had  never  de- 

*  It  was  the  general  opinion  of  the  conspirators  that  Antony  should 
be  cut  off  with  Caesar  ;  but  Brutus  pleaded  for  and  obtained  his  safety. 
This  kindness  was  ill  repaid. 

j-  The  Forum  was  a  public  place  at  Rome,  where  lawyers  and  orators 
made  thei  speeches  in  matters  of  property  of  the  state,  or  in  criminal 
cases. 


THE  EMPIRE.  231 

dared  him  a  tyrant :  accordingly,  the  body  was  brought 
forth  into  the  Forum  with  the  utmost  solemnity ;  and  An- 
tony, who  charged  himself  with  these  last  duties  of  friend- 
ship, began  his  operations  upon  the  passions  of  the  people 
by  the  prevailing  motives  of  private  interest.  24.  He  first  ' 
read  to  them  .Caesar's  will,  in  which  he  made  Octavius,  his 
sister's  grandson,  his  heir,  permitting  him  to  take  the  name 
of  Caesar,  and  bequeathed  him  three  parts  of  his  private  for- 
tune ;  which,  in  case  of  his  death,  Brutus  was  to  have  in- 
herited. To  the  Roman  people  were  left  the  gardens  which 
he  possessed  on  the  other  side  of  the  Tiber ;  and  to  every 
citizen  three  hundred  sesterces.  Unfolding  Caesar's  bloody 
robe,  pierced  by  the  daggers  of  the  conspirators,  he  observed 
to  them  the  number  of  stabs  in  it.  He  also  displayed  a 
waxen  image,  representing  the  body  of  Caesar,  all  covered 
with  wounds.  25.  The  people  could  no  longer  retain  their 
indignation,  but  unanimously  cried  out  for  revenge,  and  ran, 
with  flaming  brands  from  the  pile,  to  set  fire  to  the  houses 
of  the  conspirators.  In  this  rage  of  resentment,  meeting 
with  one  Cinna,  whom  they  mistook  for  another  of  the  same 
name  that  was  in  the  conspiracy,  they  tore  him  in  pieces. 
26.  The  conspirators  themselves,  however,  being  well  guard- 
ed, repulsed  the  multitude  with  no  great  trouble ;  but  perceiv- 
ing the  general  rage  of  the  people,  they  thought  it  safest  to 
retire  from  the  city. 

27.  In  the  mean  time,  Antony,  who  had  excited  this 
flame,  resolved  to  make  the  most  of  the  occasion.  But  an 
obstacle  to  his  ambition  seemed  to  arise  from  a  quarter  in 
which  he  least  expected  it,  namely,  from  Octa'vius,  after- 
wards called  Augus'tus,  who  was  the  grand-nephew  and 
adopted  son  of  Caesar.  A  third  competitor  also  for  power 
appeared  in  Lep'idus,  a  man  of  some  authority  and  great 
riches.  28.  At  first,  the  ambition  of  these  three  seemed  to 
threaten  fatal  consequences  to  each  other  ;  but,  uniting  in  the 
common  cause,  they  re-solved  to  revenge  the  death  of  Caesar, 
and  dividing  their  power,  they  formed  what  is  called  the 
Second  Triumvirate. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  design  was  Caesar  supposed  to  entertain? 

2.  Was  this  rumour  well  founded  1 

J.  When  hints  of  danger  were  given  him,  what  was  his  conduct  1 


232  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

4.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  imprudence  1 

5.  What  was  the  character  of  Brutus  1 

6.  What  time  was  fixed  for  the  conspiracy  to  take  place? 

7.  Had  Caesar  any  intimations  of  his  danger  ? 

8.  Was  he  at  all  influenced  by  them? 

9.  Were  no  other  attempts  made  to  warn  him  of  his  approaching 

fate? 

10.  In  what  way  did  the  conspirators  commence  their  attempt  ? 

11.  What  followed  ? 

12.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  ? 

13.  What  was  Cssar's  age? 

14.  Did  Caesar  plan  the  conquest  of  his  country  from  the  first 

15.  By  what  means  did  he  accomplish  it  ? 

1 6.  How  did  the  conspirators  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  people  ? 

1 7.  What  advantage  was  taken  of  this  event  ? 

18.  What  was  the  character  of  Antony,  and  what  resolution  did 

form  ? 

1 9.  What  were  his  first  acts  ? 

20.  How  were  the  senate  situated  on  this  occasion  ? 

21.  Was  Antony  satisfied  with  this  decree  ? 

22.  How  did  he  accomplish  this  ? 

23.  What  was  his  next  measure  ? 

24.  By  what  means  did  he  effect  his  purpose  ? 

25.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  artful  conduct? 

26.  Did  the  conspirators  fall  victims  to  their  fury  ? 

27.  Had  Antony  no  rivals  in  his  attempts  to  acquire  power  ? 

28.  What  was  the  result  of  this  rivalship  ? 


SECTION  IV. 

1.  THE  meeting  of  these  three  usurpers  of  their  country's 
freedom,  was  upon  a  little  island  of  the  river  Rhenus.* 
Their  mutual  suspicions  were  the  cause  of  their  meeting  in 
a  place  where  they  had  no  fear  of  treachery ;  for,  even  in 
their  union,  they  could  not  divest  themselves  of  mutual  dif- 
fidence. 2.  Lep'idus  first  entered  ;  and,  finding  all  things 
safe,  made  the  signal  for  the  other  two  to  approach.  At 
their  first  meeting,  after  saluting  each  other,  Augustus  began 
the  conference,  by  thanking  Antony  for  putting  Dec'imus 
Brutus  to  death ;  who,  being  abandoned  by  his  army,  had 
been  taken,  as  he  was  endeavouring  to  escape  into  Macedo' 
nia,  and  was  beheaded  by  Antony's  soldiers.  3.  They  then 
entered  upon  the  business  that  lay  before  them,  without  any 
retrospection  to  the  past.  Their  conference  lasted  three 

*  Now  the  Rheno,  which  runs  through  Bologna  and  falls  into  the  Po, 


THE    EMPIRE. 


233 


The  Second  Triumvirate  preparing  their  Froicriptlon  I-Ut, 

days ;  and,  in  this  period,  they  settled  a  division  of  the 
government,  and  determined  the  fate  of  thousands.  4.  The 
result  of  this  conference  was,  that  the  supreme  authority 
should  be  lodged  in  their  hands,  under  the  title  of  the  Tri- 
um'virate,  for  the  space  of  five  years ;  that  Antony  should 
have  Gaul ;  Lep'idus,  Spain,  and  Augustus,  Africa  and  the 
Mediterra'nean  islands.  As  for  Italy,  and  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces, they  were  to  remain  in  common,  until  their  general 
enemy  should  be  subdued  ;  and,  among  other  articles  of 
union,  it  was  agreed  that  all  their  enemies  should  be  de- 
stroyed, of  which  each  presented  a  list.  5.  In  these  were 
comprised,  not  only  the  enemies  but  the  friends  of  the  Tri- 
um'virate,  since  the  partisans  of  the  one  were  found  among 
the  opposers  of  the  other.  Thus  Lep'idus  gave  up  his 
brother  -/Emil'ius  Paulus  to  the  vengeance  of  his  colleague ; 
Antony  permitted  the  proscription  of  his  uncle  Lucius ;  and 
Augustus  delivered  up  the  great  Ci'cero,  who  was  assas- 
sinated shortly  after  by  Antony's  command.* 

*  It  is  impossible  to  paint  the  horrors  of  this  dreadful  proscription 
Nothing  was  to  he  seen  but  blood  and  slaughter;  the  streets  wero 
covered  with  dead  bodies  ;  the  heads  of  the  most  illustrious  senators 
were  exposed  on  the  rostra,  and  their  bodies  left  to  be  devc'.irvo 
and  birds  of  prey  ;  three  hundred  senators,  and  above  two  thousand 
knights,  besides  a  vast  number  of  oilers  of  considerable  rank,  fell  vic- 
tims on  this  occasion.  Many  noble  instances  of  lidelity  were  displayed 

u  2 


234  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

6.  In  the  mean  time  Brutus  and  Cassius,  the  principal  of 
the  conspirators  against  Caesar,  being  compelled  to  quit 
Rome,  Avent  into  Greece,  where  they  persuaded  the  Roman 
students  at  Athens  to  declare  in  the  cause  of  freedom  ;  then 
parting,  the  former  raised  a  powerful  army  in  Macedonia, 
while  the  latter  Avent  into  Syria,  where  he  soon  became 
master  of  twelve  legions,  and  reduced  his  opponent,  Dola- 
bella,  to  such  straits  as  to  force  him  to  lay  violent  hands  on 
himself.  7.  Both  armies  joined  at  Smyr'na :  the  sight  of 
such  a  formidable  force  began  to  revive  the  declining  spirits 
of  the  party,  and  to  reunite  the  IAVO  generals  still  more 
closely,  betAveen  whom  there  had  been,  some  time  before, 
a  slight  misunderstanding.  In  short,  having  quitted  Italy 
like  distressed  exiles,  without  having  one  soldier  or  one 
town  that  owned  their  command,  they  noAV  found  them- 
selves at  the  head  of  a  flourishing  army,  furnished  with 
every  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  Avar,  and  in  a  condition 
to  support  a  contest  on  which  the  empire  of  the  world  de- 
pended. 

8.  It  was  in  this  flourishing  state  of  their  affairs  that  the 
conspirators  formed  a  resolution  of  marching  against  Cleo- 
patra, who  had  made  great  preparations  to  assist  their  op- 
ponents. 9.  However,  they  Avere  diverted  from  this  pur- 
pose by  information  that  Augustus  and  Antony  were  noAV 
upon  their  march,  with  forty  legions,  to  oppose  them.  Bru- 
tus, therefore,  moved  to  have  their  army  pass  over  into 
Greece  and  Macedonia,  and  there  meet  the  enemy :  but 
Cassius  so  far  prevailed  as  to  have  the  Rho'dians  and  Ly'- 
cians  first  reduced,  who  had  refused  their  usual  contribu- 
tions. 10.  This  expedition  Avas  immediately  put  in  execu- 
tion, and  extraordinary  contributions  were  thus  raised,  the 
Rho'dians  having  scarcely  anything  left  them  but  their  liA'es. 
The  Ly'cians  suffered  still  more  severely  ;  for  having  shut 
themselves  up  in  their  capital  toAvn  Xanthus,  they  defended 
the  place  against  Brutus  Avith  so  much  fury,  that  neither  his 
arts  nor  entreaties  could  prevail  upon  them  to  surrender. 
11.  At  length,  the  toAvn  being  set  on  fire  by  their  attempt- 
ing to  burn  the  Avorks  of  the  Romans,  Brutus,  instead  of 
laying  hold  of  this  opportunity  to  storm  the  plaw  ,  made 
every  effort  to  preserve  it,  entreating  his  soldiers  to  *ry  all 
means  cf  extinguishing  the  fire ;  but  the  desperate  frenzy 

by  slaves  at  this  terrible  conjuncture,  several  chose  rather  to  die  o1*  the 
rack,  in  the  most  exquisite  torments,  than  betray  the  place  where  iheii 
masters  were  concealed. 


THE    EMPIRE.  235 

of  the  citizens  was  not  to  be  mollified.  12.  Far  from  think- 
ing themselves  obliged  to  the  generous  enemy  for  the  efforts 
which  they  made  to  save  them,  they  resolved  to  perish  in 
the  flames.  Instead  of  extinguishing,  therefore,  they  did  all 
in  their  power  to  augment  the  fire,  by  throwing  in  wood, 
dry  reeds,  and  all  kinds  of  fuel.  13.  Nothing  could  ex- 
ceed the  distress  of  Brutus  upon  seeing  the  townsmen  thus 
resolutely  bent  on  destroying  themselves.  He  rode  about 
the  fortifications,  stretching  out  his  hands  to  the  Xan'thians, 
and  conjuring  them  to  have  pity  on  themselves  and  their 
city ;  but,  insensible  to  his  expostulations,  they  rushed  into 
the  flames  with  desperate  obstinacy,  and  the  whole  soon  be- 
came a  heap  of  undistinguishable  ruin.  14.  At  this  horrid 
spectacle  Brutus  melted  into  tears,  offering  a  reward  to  every 
soldier  who  should  bring  him  a  Ly'cian  alive.  The  num- 
ber of  those  whom  it  was  possible  to  save  from  their  own 
fury  amounted  to  no  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty.  15. 
Some  writers,  however,  affirm  that  the  town  was  burnt  to 
the  ground,  and  the  inhabitants  destroyed,  by  the  command 
of  Brutus  ;  and  that  those  who  surrendered  at  discretion,  he 
deprived  of  all  their  public  and  private  property. 

16.  Brutus  and  Cassius  met  once  more  at  Sardis  where 
they  resolved  to  have  a  private  conference  together.  They 
shut  themselves  up  in  the  first  convenient  house,  with  ex- 
press orders  to  their  servants  to  give  admission  to  no  one. 
17.  Brutus  began  by  reprimanding  Cassius  for  having  dis- 
posed of  offices  for  money,  which  should  ever  be  the  reward 
of  merit,  and  for  having  overtaxed  the  tributary  states. 
Cassius  repelled  the  imputation  of  avarice  with  the  more 
bitterness,  as  he  knew  the  charge  to  be  groundless.  The 
debate  grew  warm  ;  till,  from  loud  speaking,  they  burst  into 
tears.  18.  Their  friends,  who  were  standing  at  the  door, 
overheard  the  increasing  vehemence  of  their  voices,  and 
began  to  tremble  for  the  consequences,  till  Favo'nius,  who 
valued  himself  upon  a  cynical  boldness,  that  knew  no  re- 
straint, entering  the  room  with  a  jest,  calmed  their  mutual 
animosity.  19.  Cassius  was  ready  enough  to  forego  his 
anger,  being  a  man  of  great  abilities,  but  01  an  uneven  dis- 
position; not  averse  to  pleasure  in  private  company,  and, 
upon  the  whole,  of  morals  not  quite  correct.  But  the  con- 
duct of  Brutus  was  perfectly  steady.  An  oven  gentleness, 
a  noblj  elevation  of  sentiment,  a  strength  of  mind  over 
which  neither  vice  nor  pleasure  could  have  an  influence, 
and  an  inflexible  firmness  in  the  cause  of  justice,  composed 


238  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the  character  of  this  great  man.  20.  After  their  conference, 
night  coming  on,  Cassius  invited  Brutus  and  his  friends  to 
an  entertainment,  where  freedom  and  cheerfulness,  for  a 
while,  took  place  of  political  anxiety,  and  softened  the  se- 
verity of  wisdom.  Upon  retiring  home  it  was  that  Brutus 
thought  he  saw  a  spectre  in  his  tent.  21.  He  naturally 
slept  but  little,  and  was  capable  of  bearing  want  of  rest  by 
long  habit  and  great  sobriety.  He  never  allowed  himself  to 
sleep  in  the  daytime,  as  was  common  in  Rome ;  and  only 
gave  so  much  of  the  night  to  repose  as  could  barely  renew 
the  functions  of  nature.  But  now,  oppressed  with  various 
cares,  he  allowed  himself  a  still  shorter  time  after  his 
nightly  repast;  and,  waking  about  midnight,  generally  read 
or  studied  till  morning.  22.  It  was  in  the  dead  of  night, 
says  Plutarch,  when  the  whole  camp  was  perfectly  quiet, 
that  Brutus  was  thus  employed;  reading  by  a  lamp  that  was 
just  expiring.  On  a  sudden  he  thought  he  heard  a  noise, 
as  if  somebody  was  approaching,  and  looking  towards  the 
door,  perceived  it  open.  A  gigantic  figure  of  frightful  aspect 
stood  before  him,  and  continued  to  gaze  upon  him  with 
silent  severity.  23.  Brutus  is  reported  to  have  asked, 
"  Art  thou  a  daemon  or  a  mortal  ?  and  why  comest  thou  to 
me  ?"  "  Brutus,"  answered  the  phantom,  "  I  am  thy  evil 
genius — thou  shalt  see  me  again  at  Philippi."*  "  Well, 
then, "replied  Brutus,  without  being  discomposed,  "  we  shall 
meet  again."  Upon  this  the  phantom  vanished ;  when  Bru- 
tus, calling  to  his  servants,  asked  if  they  had  seen  anything ; 
to  which  they  answering  in  the  negative,  he  resumed  his 
studies.  24.  Struck  with  so  strange  an  occurrence,  he 
mentioned  it  to  Cassius,  who  rightly  considered  it  as  the  ef- 
fect of  an  imagination  disordered  by  vigilance  and  anxiety. 
25.  Brutus  appeared  satisfied  with  this  solution ;  and  as 
Antony  and  Augustus  were  now  advanced  into  Macedonia, 
he  and  his  colleague  passed  over  into  Thrace,  and  drew  near 
to  Philippi,  where  the  forces  of  the  Trium'viri  were  posted 
to  receive  them. 

*  A  city  on  the  confines  of  Macedonia,  noted  for  the  battle  between 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  and  Mark  Antony  and  Augustus,  B.  C.  42 ;  and 
also  die  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  people  of  Philip'pi. 


THE    EMPIRE.  237 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Where  was  the  first  meeting  of  the  Triumvirate,  and  why  was  it 

chosen  1 

2.  What  precautions  did  they  take  7 

3.  W  hat  farther  was  done  ? 

4.  What  was  the  result  of  the  conference  « 

5.  Who  were  the  proscribed  7 

G.  What  became  of  Brutus  and  Cassius  7 

7.  What  effect  had  this  success  on  the  minds  of  their  party  1 

8.  What  was  their  first  resolution  7 

9.  Did  they  put  it  in  execution] 

10.  What  was  the  consequence  to  the  Rh(.<lians  and  Lycians  ! 

11.  What  unfortunate  accident  hastened  the  fate  of  the  town  7 

12.  Did  they  not  second  the  efforts  of  Brutus? 

13.  By  what  means  did  Brutus  attempt  to  divert  them  from  their  pur- 


pose 


14,  15.  By  what  method  did  he  endeavour  to  save  some  of  the  Lycians  7 

16.  Where  did  Brutus  and  Cassius  meet,  and  what  ensued! 

17.  Was  their  interview  an  amicable  onel 

18.  Did  no  one  interpose  7 

1 9.  What  were  the  characters  of  these  great  men  7 

20.  What  happened  after  the  conference  7 

21.  What  were  the  peculiar  habits  of  Brutus  7 

22.  What  happened  to  him  while  thus  employed  7 

23.  What  conversation  passed  between  them  7 

24.  Did  he  mention  the  circumstance  to  any  one  7 

25.  Did  Brutus  assent  to  this  opinion,  and  what  followed  7 



SECTION  V. 

1 .  MANKIND  now  began  to  regard  the  approaching  armies 
with  terror  and  suspense.  The  empire  of  the  world  de- 
pended upon  the  fate  of  a  battle.  From  victory,  on  the  one 
side,  they  had  to  expect  freedom  ;  on  the  other,  a  sovereign 
with  absolute  command.  2.  Brutus  was  the  only  man  who 
looked  upon  these  great  events  with  calmness  and  tranquil- 
lity. Indifferent  as  to  success,  and  satisfied  with  having 
done  his  duty,  he  said  to  one  of  his  friends,  "  If  I  am  vic- 
torious, I  shall  restore  liberty  to  my  country :  if  not,  by 
dying,  I  shall  myself  be  delivered  from  slavery.  My  con- 
dition is  fixed  ;  I  run  no  hazards."  3.  The  republican  army 
consisted  of  fourscore  thousand  foot,  and  twenty  thousand 
horse.  The  army  of  the  Triiun'viri  amounted  to  a  hundred 
thousand  foot  and  thirteen  thousand  horse.  4.  Thus  com- 
plete on  both  sides,  they  met  and  encamped  near  each  other 


238  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

upon  the  plains  of  Philip'pi.  Near  the  town  were  two  lit- 
tle hills,  about  a  mile  distant  from  each  other ;  upon  these 
hills,  Brutus  and  Cassius  fixed  their  camps,  and  kept  up  a 
free  communication,  which  mutually  defended  each  other. 
5.  In  this  commodious  situation  they  could  act  as  they 
thought  proper,  and  give  battle  just  when  it  was  thought  to 
their  advantage  to  engage.  Behind  was  the  sea,  which  fur- 
nished them  with  all  kinds  of  provisions ;  and,  at  twelve 
miles  distance,  the  island  of  Thasos,  which  served  them  for 
a  general  magazine.  6.  The  Trium'viri,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  encamped  on  the  plain  below,  and  were  obliged  to 
bring  provisions  from  fifteen  leagues'  distance  ;  so  that  their 
scheme  and  interest  were  to  forward  a  battle  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. This  they  offered  several  times,  drawing  out  their 
men  from  the  camp,  and  provoking  the  enemy  to  engage. 
7.  On  the  contrary,  the  enemy  contented  themselves  with 
drawing  up  their  troops  at  the  head  of  their  camps,  without 
descending  to  the  plain.  This  resolution  of  postponing  the 
battle,  was  the  chance  that  the  republican  army  had  for  vic- 
tory ;  and  Cassius,  sensible  of  his  advantage,  resolved  to 
harass  rather  than  engage  the  enemy.  8.  But  Brutus,  who 
began  to  suspect  the  fidelity  of  some  of  his  officers,  used  all 
his  influence  to  persuade  Cassius  to  change  his  resolution. 
"  I  am  impatient,"  said  he,  "  to  put  an  end  to  the  miseries 
of  mankind ;  and  in  this  I  hope  to  succeed  whether  I  con- 
quer or  fall."  9.  His  wishes  were  soon  gratified ;  for  An- 
tony's soldiers  having,  with  great  labour,  made  a  road 
through  the  marsh  which  lay  to  the  left  of  Cassius's  camp, 
by  that  means  opened  a  communication  with  the  island  of 
Thasos,  which  lay  behind  him.  Both  armies,  after  several 
attempts  to  possess  themselves  of  this  road,  resolved  at 
length  to  come  to  a  general  engagement.  10.  This,  how- 
ever, was  contrary  to  the  advice  of  Cassius,  who  found  him- 
self forced,  as  Pompey  had  formerly  been,  to  expose  the 
liberty  of  Rome  to  the  hazard  of  a  battle.  On  the  ensuing 
morning,  the  two  generals  gave  the  signal  for  engaging,  and 
conferred  together  a  little  while  before  the  battle  began. 
11.  Cassius  desired  to  be  informed  how  Brutus  intended  to 
act  in  case  they  should  be  unsuccessful.  To  this  Brutus 
repliad,  "  Formerly,  in  my  writings,  I  condemned  the  death 
of  Cuto,  and  maintained,  that  avoiding  calamities  by  suicide 
is  an  insolent  attempt  against  Heaven,  that  allotted  them ; 
but  I  have  altered  my  opinion  ;  I  have  given  up  my  life  to 
my  country,  and  I  think  I  have  a  right  to  my  own  way  of 


THE    EMPIRE.  239 

ending  it.*  I  am  resolved,  therefore,  to  change  a  miserable 
being  here  for  a  better  hereafter,  if  fortune  turn  against  me." 
12.  "  My  friend,"  cried  Cassius,  embracing  him,  "  now 
may  we  venture  to  face  the  enemy ;  for  either  we  shall  be 
conquerors,  or  we  shall  have  no  cause  to  fear  those  that  be 
so."  13.  Augustus  being  sick,  the  forces  of  the  Triumviri 
were  commanded  by  Antony  alone,  who  began  the  engage- 
ment by  a  victorious  attack  upon  the  lines  of  Cassius.  Bru- 
tus, on  the  other  side,  made  a  dreadful  irruption  on  the  nrmy 
of  Augustus,  and  drove  forward  with  so  much  intrepidity, 
that  he  broke  them  upon  the  very  first  charge.  Upon  this, 
he  penetrated  as  far  as  the  camp,  and  slaughtering  those  that 
were  left  for  its  defence,  his  troops  immediately  began  to 
plunder.  14.  In  the  mean  time,  however,  the  lines  of  Cas- 
sius were  forced,  and  his  cavalry  put  to  flight.  There  Avas 
no  effort  that  this  unfortunate  general  did  not  exert  to  make 
his  infantry  stand ;  stopping  those  that  fled,  and  himself 
seizing  the  colours  to  rally  them.  But  the  valour  of  an  in- 
dividual was  insufficient  to  inspire  a  timorous  army.  15.  At 
length,  despairing  of  success,  Cassius  retired  to  his  tent  and 
killed  himself.  Brutus  was  soon  informed  of  the  defeat  of 
Cassius,  and  in  a  little  time  after,  of  his  death  ;  scarcely 
able  to  restrain  the  excess  of  his  grief  for  a  man  whom  he 
lamented  as  the  last  of  the  Romans. 

16.  Brutus,  now  become  sole  general,  assembled  the 
dispersed  troops  of  Cassius,  and  animated  them  with  fresh 
hopes  of  victory.  As  they  had  lost  their  all  from  the  plun- 
dering of  their  camp,  he  promised  two  thousand  denarii  to 
each  man  to  make  them  amends.  17.  Inspired  with  new 
ardour,  they  admired  the  liberality  of  their  general,  and, 
with  loud  shouts,  proclaimed  his  intrepidity.  Still,  how- 
ever, he  wanted  confidence  to  face  the  adversary,  who 
offered  him  battle  the  ensuing  day.  His  aim  was  to  starve 
the  enemy,  who  were  in  extreme  want  of  provisions,  from 
their  fleet  having  been  lately  defeated.  18.  But  his  single 
opinion  was  overruled  by  the  army,  who  now  grew  every 
day  more  confident  of  their  strength,  and  more  arrogant  to 
their  general.  At  last,  therefore,  after  a  respite  of  twenty 
days,  he  was  obliged  to  comply  with  their  solicitations  to 
try  the  fate  of  a  battle.  Both  armies  were  drawn  out,  and 

*  This  is  very  erroneous  reasoning :  suicide  is,  no  doubt  a  hrinoua 
crime  :  but  Brutus  appears  to  have  bc:>n  governed  by  his  apprehension 
of  danger,  instead  of  being  convinced  by  the  sober  dictates  of  his  judg- 
ment 


240  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the)  remained  a  long  while  opposite  to  each  other  without 
offering  to  engage.    It  is  said,  that  he  himself  had  lost  much 
of  his  ardour  by  having  again  seen,  or  fancied  that  he  saw,  the 
spectre,  in  the  night  preceding.     However,  he  encouraged 
his  men,  and  gave  the  signal  for  battle.     As  usual,  he  had 
the  advantage  where  he  commanded    in    person ;    bearing 
down  the  enemy  at  the  head  of  his  infantry,  and  supported 
by  his  cavalry,  making  great  slaughter.     19.  But  the  forces 
which  had  belonged  to  Cassius  were  seized  with  a  panic, 
and  communicating  their  terror  to  the  rest,  the  whole  army 
at  last  gave  way.     Brutus,  surrounded  by  the  most  valiant 
of  his  officers,  fought  long  with  amazing  valour.     The  son 
of  Cato,  and  the  brother  of  Cassius,  fell  fighting  by  his  side. 
At  last,  he  was  obliged  to  yield  to  necessity,  and  fled.    20. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  two  Triumviri,  assured  of  victory, 
expressly  ordered  that  the  general  should  by  no  means  be 
suffered  to  escape.     Thus  the  whole  body  of  the  enemy  be- 
ing intent  on  the  person  of  Brutus  alone,  his  capture  seemed 
inevitable.      21.  In  this  deplorable  exigence,  Lucil'ius,  his 
friend,  resolved,  by  his  own  death,  to  effect  his  general's 
delivery.     22.  Seeing  a  body  of  Thracian    horse    closely 
pursuing  Brutus,  and  just  upon  the  point  of  taking  him,  he 
boldly  threw  himself  in  their  way,  telling  them  that  he  was 
Brutus.     The  Thra'cians  overjoyed  with  so  great  a  prize, 
immediately  despatched  some  of  their  companions  with  the 
news  of  their  success  to  the  army.      23.   Upon  this,  the 
ardour  of  the  pursuit  abating,  Antony  marched  out  to  meet 
his  prisoner,  either  to  hasten  his  death,  or  insult  his  misfor- 
tunes.    He  was  followed  by  a  great  number  of  officers  and 
soldiers,  some   silently  deploring  the  fate  of  so  virtuous  a 
man,  others  reproaching  that  mean  desire  of  life  for  which 
he  consented  to  undergo  captivity.    24.  Antony  now  seeing 
the  Thracians  approach,  began  to  prepare  himself  for  the  in- 
terview ;  but  the  faithful  Lucilius,  advancing  with  a  cheerful 
air — "  It  is  not  Brutus,"  said  he,  "  that  is  taken ;  fortune 
has  not  yet  had  the  power  of  committing  so  great  an  outrage 
upon  virtue.     As  for  my  life,  it  is  well  lost  in  preserving 
his  honour ;  take  it,  for  I  have  deceived  you."     Antony, 
struck  with  so   much  fidelity,  pardoned  him,  loaded  him 
with  benefits,  and  honoured  him  with  his  friendship. 

25.  In  the  mean  time,  Brutus,  with  a  small  number  of 
friends,  passed  over  a  rivulet ;  and  night  coming  on,  sat 
down  under  a  rock,  which  concealed  him  from  the  pursuit 
of  the  enemy.  After  taking  breath,  and  casting  his  eyes  to 


THE    EMPIRE.  241 

heaven,  he  repeated  a  line  from  Eurip'ides,  containing  a 
wish  to  the  gods,  "That  guilt  should  not  pass  in  this  life 
without  punishment."  To  this  he  added  another  from  the 
same  poet :  "  O  unhappy  virtue  !  I  have  worshipped  thee 
as  a  real  good  ;  but  thou  art  a  vain  empty  name,  and  the  slave 
of  fortune."  He  then  called  to  mind,  with  great  tenderness, 
those  whom  he  had  seen  perish  in  battle.  26.  He  sent  out 
one  Statil'ius  to  give  him  information  of  those  that  remained  ; 
but  Statil'ius  never  returned,  being  killed  by  a  party  of  the 
enemy's  horse.  Brutus,  judging  rightly  of  his  fate,  now 
resolved  to  die  likewise ;  and  entreated  those  who  stood 
round  him  to  give  him  their  last  sad  assistance  :  but  they  all 
refused  so  melancholy  a  service.  27.  He  then  retired  aside 
with  his  friend  Strato,  requesting  him  to  perform  the  last 
office  of  friendship.  Upon  Strato's  refusal,  he  ordered  one 
of  his  slaves  to  execute  what  he  so  ardently  desired ;  but 
Strato  crying  out,  "  that  it  never  should  be  said  that  Brutus, 
in  his  last  extremity,  stood  in  need  of  a  slave  for  want  of  a 
friend,"  turned  aside  his  head,  and  presenting  the  sword's 
point,  Brutus  threw  himself  upon  it,  and  immediately  ex- 
pired, in  the  forty-third  year  of  his  age.  A.  u.  711. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  great  event  was  now  depending  ? 

2.  What  were  Brutus's  feelings  on  this  occasion  ? 

3.  What  was  the  respective  strength  of  the  armies  ? 

4.  Where  did  they  meet  and  encamp  ? 

5.  What  were  the  advantages  of  this  situation  ! 

6.  Were  the  Triumviri  equally  well  situated  1 

7.  Were  the  enemy  equally  ready  to  engage  1 

8.  What  induced  Brutus  to  combat  this  resolution  ! 

9.  Did  he  obtain  his  wish  1 

10.  Did  Cassius  wish  to  engage?      , 

\  1.  What  passed  between  the  generals  on  this  occasion  ? 

12.  What  was  the  reply  of  Cassius  1 

13.  What  happened  at  the  commencement  of  the  battle! 

14.  Was  Cassius  equally  successful! 

15.  What  did  he  do  in  his  extremity,  and  what  effect  had  it  on  Brutual 

16.  Did  Brutus  attempt  to  recover  the  victory  ! 

17.  What  followed! 

18.  Were  his  intentions  agreeable  to  his  troops,  and  what  was  th«  con 

sequence  1 

19.  What  decided  the  victory  against  him  1 

20.  What  orders  were  issued  by  the  Triumviri  on  this  occasion  ? 

X 


242  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

21.  By  whom  was  his  deliverance  attempted  ? 

22.  How  did  he  accomplish  this  ! 

23.  What  was  the  consequence? 

24.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  their  interview  ? 

25.  What  happened  to  Brutus  in  the  mean  time  ? 

26.  How  did  he  attempt  to  gain  intelligence,  and  what  followed  his  dis- 

appointment 1 

27.  Relate  the  manner  of  his  death  1 


SECTION  VI. 

1.  FROM  the  moment  of  Brutus's  death,  the  Trium'vir' 
began  to  act  as  sovereigns,  and  to  divide  the  Roman  do- 
minions among  them  as  their  own  by  right  of  conquest.  2. 
However,  though  there  were  apparently  three  who  partici- 
pated all  power,  yet,  in  fact,  only  two  were  actually  pos- 
sessed of  it,  since  Lep'idus  was  admitted  at  first  merely  to 
curb  the  mutual  jealousy  of  Antony  and  Augustus,  and  was 
possessed  neither  of  interest  in  the  army,  nor  authority 
among  the  people.  3.  Their  earliest  care  was  to  punish 
those  whom  they  had  formerly  marked  for  vengeance. 
Horten'sius,  Dru'sus,  and  Quintil'ius  Va'rus,  all  men  of  the 
first  rank  in  the  commonwealth,  either  killed  themselves  or 
were  slain.  A  senator  and  his  son  were  ordered  to  cast  lots 
for  their  lives,  but  both  refused  ;  the  father  voluntarily  gave 
himself  up  to  the  executioner,  and  the  son  stabbed  himself 
before  his  face.  Another  begged  to  have  the  rites  of  burial 
after  his  death  :  to  which  Augus'tus  replied,  "  that  he  would 
soon  find  a  grave  in  the  vultures  that  would  devour  him." 
4.  But  chiefly  the  people  lamented  to  see  the  head  of  Bru- 
tus sent  to  Rome  to  be  thrown  at  the  foot  of  Caesar's  statue. 
His  ashes,  however,  were  sent  to  his  wife  Portia,  Cato's 
daughter,  who,  following  the  exa  nples  of  both  her  husband 
and  father,  killed  herself,  by  swallowing  coals.  5.  It  is  ob- 
served, that  of  all  those  who  had  a  hand  in  the  death  of  Cae- 
sar, not  one  died  a  natural  death. 

6.  The  power  of  the  Triumviri  being  thus  established 
upon  the  ruin  of  the  commonwealth,  they  now  began  to 
think  of  enjoying  that  homage  to  which  they  had  aspired. 
7  Antony  went  into  Greece  to  receive  the  flattery  of  that 
refined  people,  and  spent  some  time  at  A'thens,  conversing 
\vith  the  philosophers,  and  assisting  at  their  disputes  in 
person.  Thence  he  passed  over  into  Asia,  where  all  the 


THE    EMPIRE.  243 


Antony  with  Cleopatra  in  Egypt. 

monarchs  of  the  east,  who  acknowledged  the  Roman  power, 
came  to  pay  him  their  obedience  ;  while  the  fairest  princesses 
strove  to  gain  his  favour  by  the  greatness  of  their  presents 
or  the  allurements  of  their  beauty.  8.  In  this  manner  he 
proceeded  from  kingdom  to  kingdom,  attended  by  a  succes- 
sion of  sovereigns,  exacting  contributions,  distributing  fa- 
vours, and  giving  away  crowns  with  capricious  insolence. 
He  presented  the  kingdom  of  Cappado'cia  to  Sy'senes,  in 
prejudice  of  Ariara'thes,  only  because  he  was  pleased  with 
the  beauty  of  Glaph'yra,  the  mother  of  the  former.  lie 
settled  Herod  in  the  kingdom  of  Judea,  and  supported  him. 
But  among  all  the  sovereigns  of  the  east,  who  depended 
upon  Antony,  Cleopatra,  the  celebrated  queen  of  Egypt, 
was  the  most  distinguished. 

9.  It  happened  that  Sera'pion,  her  governor  in  the  isle 
of  Cyprus,  had  formerly  furnished  some  succours  to  Cas- 
sius  and  the  conspirators ;  and  it  was  thought  proper  she 
should  answer  for  his  conduct.  Accordingly,  having  re- 
ceived orders  from  Antony  to  clear  herself  of  the  imputation 
of  infidelity,  she  readily  complied,  equally  conscious  of  the 
goodness  of  her  cause  and  the  power  of  her  beauty.  10. 
She  was  now  in  her  twenty-seventh  year,  and  consequently 
had  improved  those  allurements  by  art,  which  in  earlier 
age  are  seldom  attended  to.  Her  address  and  wit  were  still 
rarther  heightened ;  and  though  there  were  some  women  in 
Rome  that  were  her  equals  in  beauty,  none  could  rival  her 
in  the  powers  of  conversation.  11.  Ar.touy  was  in  Tarsus, 
a  city  of  Cili'cia,  when  Cleopatra  resolved  to  attend  his 
court  in  person.  She  sailed  down  the  river  Cydnus  to  meet 
him,  with  the  most  sumptuous  pageantry.  The  stern  of 


244  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

her  galley  was  covered  with  gold,  its  sails  were  purple  silk, 
its  oars  silver,  and  they  kept  time  to  the  sound  of  flutes 
and  cymbals.  She  exhibited  herself  reclining  on  a  couch 
spangled  with  stars  of  gold,  and  such  other  ornaments  as 
poets  and  painters  had  usually  ascribed  to  Venus.  On  each 
side  were  boys  like  cupids,  fanning  her  by  turns,  while 
beautiful  nymphs,  dressed  like  Nereids  and  Graces,  were 
placed  at  proper  distances  around  her :  the  sweets  that  were 
burning  on  board  her  galley  perfumed  the  banks  of  the  river 
as  she  passed,  while  an  infinite  number  of  people  gazed 
upon  the  exhibition  with  delight  and  admiration.  12.  An- 
tony soon  became  captivated  with  her  beauty,  and  found 
himself  unable  to  defend  his  heart  against  that  passion  which 
proved  the  cause  of  his  future  misfortunes.  When  Cleopa'- 
tra  had  thus  secured  her  power,  she  set  out  on  her  return 
to  Egypt.  Antony,  quitting  every  other  object,  presently 
hastened  after  her,  and  there  gave  himself  up  to  all  that  case 
and  softness  to  which  his  vicious  heart  was  prone,  and 
which  that  luxurious  people  were  able  to  supply. 

13.  While  he  remained  thus  idle  in  Egypt,  Augustus, 
who  took  upon  him  to  lead  back  the  veteran  troops,  and 
settle  them  in  Italy,  was  assiduously  employed  in  providing 
for  their  subsistence.  14.  He  had  promised  them  lands  at 
home,  as  a  recompense  for  their  past  services  ;  but  they 
could  not  receive  their  new  grants  without  turning  out  the 
£->rmer  inhabitants.  15.  In  consequence  of  this,  multitudes 
«f  women,  with  their  children  in  their  arms,  whose  tender 
years  and  innocence  excited  compassion,  daily  filled  the 
temples  and  the  streets  with  their  lamentations.  Numbers 
of  husbandmen  and  shepherds  came  to  deprecate  the  con- 
queror's intention,  or  to  obtain  a  habitation  in  some  other 
part  of  the  world.  1 6.  Among  this  number  was  Virgil,  the 
poet,  to  whom  mankind  owe  more  obligations  than  to  a 
thousand  conquerors,  who,  in  an  humble  manner,  begged 
permission  to  retain  his  patrimonial  farm.  17.  Virgil  ob- 
tained his  request  ;*  but  the  rest  of  his  countrymen  at  Man- 
tua,! and  Cremo'na,  were  turned  out  without  mercy. 
j  18.  Italy  and  Rome  now  felt  the  most  extreme  miseries. 

•  On  showing  the  order  for  the  restoration  of  his  property,  he  was 
nearly  killed  by  the  centurion  who  was  in  possession,  and  escaped  only 
by  swimming  across  a  river.  To  these  melancholy  events  he  alludes  in 
his  first  Eclogue. 

j-  Mantua  was  a  very  ancient  town,  supposed  to  be  older  than  Rome. 
If  is  still  called  Mantua,  and  is  he  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  same  name- 


THE    EMPIRE.  245 

The  insolent  soldiers  plundered  at  will  ;  while  Sextus 
Pompey,  being  master  of  the  sea,  cut  off  all  foreign  com- 
munication, and  prevented  the  people  from  receiving  their 
usual  supplies  of  corn.  To  these  mischiefs  were  added  the 
commencement  of  another  civil  Avar.  19.  Fulvia,  the  wife 
of  Antony,  whom  he  had  left  behind  at  Rome,  felt  for  some 
time  all  the  rage  of  jealousy,  and  resolved  to  try  every 
method  of  bringing  back  her  husband  from  Cleopa'tra.  20. 
She  considered  a  breach  with  Augustus  as  the  only  probable 
means  of  rousing  him  from  his  lethargy ;  and,  accordingly, 
with  the  assistance  of  Lucius,  her  brother-in-law,  she  began 
to  sow  the  seeds  of  dissension.  The  pretext  was,  that 
Antony  should  have  a  share  in  the  distribution  of  lands  as 
well  as  Augustus.  21.  This  produced  negociations  between 
them,  and  Augustus  offered  to  make  the  veterans  themselves 
umpires  in  this  dispute.  .Lucius  refused  to  acquiesce;  and 
being  at  the  head  of  more  than  six  legions,  mostly  com- 
posed of  such  as  were  dispossessed  of  their  lands,  he  re- 
solved to  compel  Augustus  to  accept  of  whatever  terms  he 
should  offer.  Thus  a  new  war  was  excited  between  Augus- 
tus and  Antony ;  or,  at  least,  the  generals  of  Antony  assumed 
the  sanction  of  his  name.  22.  Augustus  was  victorious ; 
Lucius  was  hemmed  in  between  two  armies,  and  constrained 
to  retreat  to  Peru'sia,  where  he  was  closely  besieged  by  the 
opposite  party.  He  made  many  desperate  sallies,  and  Ful- 
via did  all  in  her  power  to  relieve  him,  but  without  success, 
so  that,  being  at  last  reduced  to  extremity  by  famine,  he 
delivered  himself  up  to  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  Augus- 
tus received  him  honourably,  and  generously  pardoned  hiita 
and  all  his  followers.* 

23.  Antony  having  heard  of  his  brother's  overthrow,  and 
of  his  wife  being  compelled  to  leave  Italy,  was  resolved  to 
oppose  Augustus.  He  accordingly  sailed  at  the  head  of  a 
considerable  fleet,  and  had  an  interview  with  Fulvia  at 
Athens.  24.  He  much  blamed  her  for  occasioning  the  late 
disorders,  testified  the  utmost  contempt  for  her  person,  and, 
leaving  her  upon  her  death-bed,  hastened  into  Italy  to  fight 
Augustus.  They  both  met  at  Brundu'sium,  and  it  was  now 
thought  that  the  flames  of  civil  war  were  going  to  blaze  out 
once  more.  25.  The  forces  of  Antony  were  numerous,  but 

*  He,  however,  displayed  his  usual  cruelty  towards  the  inhabitants^ 
causing  three  hundred  senators  to  be  sacrificed  at  an  altar  erected  to  the 
memory  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  delivering  up  the  city  to  plunder  and  th« 
flames. 

x  2 


246  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

mostly  newly  raised ;  however,  he  was  assisted  by  Sextus 
Pompei'us,  who,  in  those  oppositions  of  interest,  was  daily 
coming  into  power.  Augustus  was  at  the  head  of  those 
veterans  who  had  always  been  irresistible,  but  who  seemed 
no  way  disposed  to  fight  against  Antony,  their  former  gene- 
ral. 26.  A  negociation  was  therefore  proposed,  and  a  re- 
conciliation was  effected :  all  offences  and  affronts  Avere 
mutually  forgiven ;  and,  to  cement  the  union,  a  marriage 
was  concluded  between  Antony  and  Octavia,  the  sister  of 
Augustus.  27.  A  new  division  of  the  Roman  empire  was 
made  between  them  ;  Augustus  was  to  have  command  of 
the  West — Antony  of  the  East ;  while  Lepidus  was  obliged 
to  content  himself  with  the  provinces  in  Africa.  As  for 
Sextus  Pompei'us,  he  was  permitted  to  retain  all  the  islands 
he  already  possessed,  together  with  Peloponnesus ;  he  was 
also  granted  the  privilege  of  demanding  the  consulship, 
though  absent,  and  of  discharging  that  office  by  a  friend. 
It  was  stipulated  to  leave  the  sea  open,  and  to  pay  the  peo- 
ple what  corn  was  due  out  of  Sicily.  Thus  a  general  peace 
was  concluded,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the  people,  who 
now  expected  an  end  to  all  their  calamities. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  ensued  on  the  death  of  Brutus! 

2.  Were  the  triumviri  possessed  of  equal  power  ? 

3.  What  were  their  first  measures  ? 

4.  By  what  were  the  people  most  affected  1 

5.  What  observation  has  been  made  on  these  events  1 

6.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  establishment  of  their  power  * 

7.  Whither  did  Antony  betake  himself  for  that  purpose  ? 

8.  How  was  he  employed  1 

9.  By  what  means  did  Cleopatra  incur  his  displeasure  1 

1 0.  What  personal  advantages  did  she  possess  ? 

11.  Did  she  appear  before  Antony  as  an  humble  suppliant? 

12.  What  was  the  result  of  the  interview  1 

13.  How  was  Augustus  employed  in  the  mean  time? 

14.  What  recompense  had  he  promised  these  troops? 

15.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  tyranny? 

16.  What  remarkable  person  was  among  the  sufferers  T 

17.  Was  his  request  granted? 

1 8.  What  was  the  state  of  Italy  at  this  time  ? 

19.  What  occasioned  it  ? 

20.  What  did  she  consider  as  the  most  probable  means  of  reclaiming 

him? 


THE    EMPIRE.  247 

21.  Were  terms  of  accommodation  offered  and  accepted  ? 

22.  What  was  the  event  of  the  war ! 

23.  What  was  Antony's  conduct  on  the  occasion  1 

24.  Did  he  approve  of  his  wife's  proceedings  ? 

25.  Were  the  two  armies  of  nearly  equal  strength? 

26.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

27.  What  further  measures  were  adopted  ? 


SECTION  VII. 

1.  THE  only  obstacle  to  the  ambition  of  Augustus  was 
Antony,  whom  he  resolved  to  remove  ;  and  for  that  purpose 
rendered  his  character  at  Rome  as  contemptible  as  he  pos- 
sibly could.  In  fact,  Antony's  conduct  did  not  a  little  con- 
tribute to  promote  the  endeavours  of  his  ambitious  partner. 
2.  He  had  marched  against  the  Parthians  with  a  prodigious 
army,  but  was  forced  to  return  with  the  loss  of  the  fourth 
part  of  his  forces,  and  all  his  baggage. 

3.  However,  Antony  seemed  quite  regardless  of  contempt: 
alive  only  to  pleasure,  and  totally  disregarding  the  business 
of  the  state,  he  spent  his  whole  time  in  the  company  of 
Cleopatra,  who  studied  every  art  to  increase  his  passion 
and  vary  his  entertainments.  4.  Few  women  have  been  so 
much  celebrated  for  the  art  of  giving  novelty  to  pleasure, 
and  making  trifles  important.  Still  ingenious  in  filling  up 
the  time  with  some  new  strokes  of  refinement,  she  was  at 
one  time  a  queen,  then  a  bac'chanal,  and  sometimes  a  hun- 
tress. 5.  Not  contented  with  sharing  with  her  all  the  de- 
lights which  Egypt  could  afford,  Antony  was  resolved  to 
enlarge  his  sphere  of  luxury,  by  granting  her  some  of  those 
kingdoms  which  belonged  to  the  Roman  empire.  He  gave 
her  all  Pheni'cia,  Celo-Syria,  and  Cy'prus,  with  a  great 
part  of  Cili'cia,  Ara'bia,  and  Jude'a,  gifts  which  he  had  no 
right  to  bestow,  but  which  he  pretended  to  grant  in  imitation 
of  Hercules.  6.  This  complication  of  vice  and  folly  at  last 
totally  exasperated  the  Romans,  and  Augus'tus,  willing  to 
take  the  advantage  of  their  resentment,  took  care  to  exag- 
gerate all  his  defects.  7.  At  length,  when  he  found  the 
people  sufficiently  irritated  against  him,  he  resolved  to  send 
Octa'via,  who  was  then  at  Rome,  to  Antony,  as  if  with  a 
view  of  reclaiming  her  husband;  but,  in  fact,  to  furnish 
a  sufficient  pretext  for  declaring  war  against  him,  as  he  kiie1" 
she  would  be  dismissed  with  contempt. 


248  HISTORY  or  ROME. 

8.  Antony  was  now  in  the  city  of  Leucop'olis,  revelling 
with  Cleopatra,  when  he  heard  that  Octa'via  was  at  Athens, 
upon  her  journey  to  visit  him.  This  was  very  unwelcome 
news  both  to  him  and  Cleopa'tra ;  the  latter,  fearing  the 
charms  of  her  rival,  endeavoured  to  convince  Antony  of  the 
strength  of  her  passion,  by  her  sighs,  her  looks,  and  well- 
feigned  melancholy.  He  frequently  caught  her  in  tears, 
which  she  seemingly  attempted  to  hide,  and  of  which  she 
appeared  extremely  reluctant  to  tell  him  the  cause.  9.  These 
artifices,  together  with  the  ceaseless  flattery  and  importunity 
of  her  creatures,  prevailed  so  much  on  Antony's  weakness, 
that  he  commanded  Octa'via  to  return  home  without  seeing 
her;  and  still  more  to  exasperate  the  people  of  Rome,  he 
resolved  to  repudiate  her,  and  take  Cleopa'tra  as  his  wife. 
10.  He  accordingly  assembled  the  people  of  Alexandria  in 
the  public  theatre,  where  was  raised  an  alcove  of  silver, 
under  which  were  placed  two  thrones  of  gold,  one  for  him- 
self, and  the  other  for  Cleopa'tra.  There  lie  seated  himself, 
dressed  as  Bacchus,  while  Cleopatra  sat  beside  him,  clothed 
in  the  ornaments  and  attributes  of  I'sis,  the  principal  deity  of 
the  Egyptians.  11.  On  that  occasion  he  declared  her  queen 
of  all  the  countries  which  he  had  already  bestowed  upon 
her,  while  he  associated  Csesa'rio,  her  son  by  Caesar,  as  her 
partner  in  the  government.  To  the  two  children  of  himself 
by  her,  he  gave  the  title  of  King  of  Kings,  with  very  ex- 
tensive dominions  ;  and,  to  crown  his  absurdities,  he  next 
sent  a  minute  account  of  his  proceedings  to  the  two  consuls 
at  Rome. 

12.  In  the  mean  time,  Augustus  had  a  sufficient  pretext 
for  declaring  war,  and  informed  the  senate  of  his  intentions. 
However,  he  deferred  the  execution  of  his  design  for  a 
while,  being  then  employed  in  quelling  an  insurrection  of 
the  Illy'rians.  13.  The  following  year  was  chiefly  taken 
up  in  preparations  against  Antony,  who,  perceiving  his  in- 
tentions, remonstrated  to  the  senate,  that  he  had  many 
causes  of  complaint  against  his  colleague,  who  had  seized 
upon  Sicily  without  affording  him  a  share ;  alleging  that 
he  had  also  dispossessed  Lep'idus,  and  kept  to  himself  the 
province  he  had  commanded ;  and  that  he  had  divided  all 
Italy  among  his  own  soldiers,  leaving  nothing  to  recom- 
pense tnose  in  Asia.  14.  To  this  complaint  Augustus  was 
content  to  make  a  sarcastic  answer,  implying  that  it  was 
absurd  to  complain  of  his  distribution  of  a  few  trifling  dis- 
tricts in  Italy,  when  Antony,  having  conquered  Par'thia, 


"THE  EMPIRE.  249 

might  now  reward  his  soldiers  with  cities  and  provinces.* 
15.  This  sarcasm  provoked  him  to  send  his  army  without 
delay  into  Europe,  to  meet  Augustus,  while  he  and  Cleo- 
pa'tra  followed  to  Sa'mos,t  in  order  to  prepare  for  carrying 
on  the  war  with  vigour.  16.  When  arrived  there,  it  was 
ridiculous  enough  to  behold  the  odd  mixture  of  preparations 
for  pleasure  and  for  war.  On  one  side,  all  the  kings  and 
princes  from  Egypt  to  the  Euxine  Sea  had  orders  to  send 
him  supplies  of  men,  provisions,  and  arms ;  on  the  other, 
comedians,  dancers,  buffoons,  and  musicians,  were  ordered 
to  attend  him. 

17.  His  delay  at  Sa'mos,  and  afterwards  at  A'thens, 
where  he  carried  Cleopa'tra  to  receive  new  honours,  proved 
extremely  favourable  to  the  arms  of  Augustus,  who  was  at 
first  scarcely  in  a  situation  to  oppose  him,  had  he  gone  into 
Italy ;  but  he  soon  found  time  to  put  himself  in  a  condition 
for  carrying  on  the  war,  and  shortly  after  declared  it  against 
him  in  form.  At  length  both  sides  found  themselves  in 
readiness  to  begin,  and  their  armies  were  suitable  to  the 
greatness  of  the  empire  for  which  they  contended.  18.  The 
one  was  followed  by  all  the  forces  of  the  East ;  the  other 
drew  after  him  all  the  strength  of  the  West.  Antony's  force 
composed  a  body  of  one  hundred  thousand  foot,  and  twelve 
thousand  horse,  while  his  fleet  amounted  to  five  hundred 
ships  of  war.  Augustus  mustered  but  eighty  thousand  foot, 
but  equalled  his  adversary  in  the  number  of  cavalry ;  his  fleet 
was  but  half  as  numerous  as  Antony's ;  however,  his  ships 
were  better  built,  and  manned  with  better  soldiers. 

10.  The  great  decisive  engagement,  which  was  a  naval 
one,  was  fought  near  Ac'tium,|  a  city  of  Epi'rus,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  gulf  of  Ambra'cia.  Antony  ranged  his 
ships  before  the  mouth  of  the  gulf;  and  Augustus  drew  up 
his  fleet  in  opposition.  Neither  general  assumed  any  fixed 
station  to  command  in,  but  went  about  from  ship  to  ship, 
wherever  his  presence  was  necessary.  In  the  mean  time 
the  two  land  armies,  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  gulf,  were 
drawn  up,  only  as  spectators  of  the  engagement,  and  en- 

*  The  severity  of  this  sarcasm  lay  in  its  being  directly  contrary  to 
truth,  as  Antony  had  been  defeated  by  the  Par'thians. 

j-  Samoa,  a  celebrated  island  in  the  Arehipel'ago.  It  has  been  ren- 
dered famous  for  the  worship  and  a  temple  of  Juno,  with  a  noted  Asylum. 
Its  capital  was  of  the  same  name,  and  is  memorable  for  the  birth  of 
Pythagoras. 

$  Actium  is  famous  for  a  temple  of  Apollo. 


250  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

couraged  the  fleets,  by  their  shouts,  to  engage.  20.  The 
battle  began  on  both  sides  after  a  manner  not  practised 
upon  former  occasions.  The  prows  of  their  vessels  were 
armed  with  brazen  beaks,  with  which  it  was  usual  to  drive 
furiously  against  each  other;  but  Antony's  ships  being  large, 
unwieldy,  and  badly  manned,  were  incapable  of  the  neces- 
sary swiftness,  while  those  of  Augustus,  from  the  lightness 
of  their  construction,  were  fearful  of  the  rude  encounter : 
the  battle,  therefore,  rather  resembled  a  land  fight,  the  ships 
being  brought  alongside  each  other.  They  fought  with  great 
ardour,  without  advantage  on  either  side,  except  from  a  small 
appearance  of  disorder  in  the  centre  of  Antony's  fleet.  21. 
But,  all  on  a  sudden,  Cleopa'tra  determined  the  fortune  of 
the  day.  She  was  seen  flying  from  the  engagement  with 
her  sixty  sail,  struck,  perhaps,  with  the  terrors  natural  to 
her  sex ;  and,  to  increase  the  general  amazement,  Antony 
himself  precipitately  followed,  leaving  his  fleet  at  the  mercy 
of  the  conquerors  ;  while  the  army  on  land  submitted,  being 
thus  abandoned  by  their  general. 

22.  When  Cleopa'tra  fled,  Antony  pursued  her  in  a  quin- 
quireme,*  and  coming  alongside  her  ship,  entered  it  without 
any  desire  of  seeing  her.  She  was  in  the  stern,  and  he 
went  to  the  prow,  where  he  remained  silent  and  melan- 
choly. In  this  manner  he  continued  three  whole  days, 
during  which,  either  through  indignation  or  shame,  he 
neither  saw  nor  spoke  to  Cleopa'tra.  The  queen's  female 
attendants,  however,  reconciled  them,  and  every  thing  went 
on  as  before.  23.  Still  he  had  the  consolation  to  suppose  his 
army  cWfnWrfetlm*  tS-iUI^^l^rdingjy  despatched 
ordeis  to  conduct  it  into  Asia.  But  he  was  soon  undeceived 
when  he  arrived  in  Africa,  where  he  was  informed  of  their 
submission  to  his  rival.t  24.  This  so  transported  him  with 
rage,  that  with  difficulty  he  was  prevented  from  killing  him- 
self. At  length,  at  the  entreaty  of  his  friends,  he  returned  to 
Alexandria.  25.  Cleopa'tra  seemed  to  retain  that  fortitude 
in  her  misfortunes,  which  had  utterly  abandoned  her  ad- 
mirer. Having  amassed  considerable  riches,  by  means  of 
confiscations  and  other  acts  of  violence,  she  formed  a  very 

*  A  gallev  with  five  banks  of  oars. 

f  They  continued  unshaken  in  their  fidelity  for  seven  days  after  the 
battle  of  Actium,  notwithstanding  the  advantageous  offers  made  them  by 
Augustus,  in  hopes  Antony  would  return  and  pu*  himself  at  their  head , 
but  finding  themselves  disappointed,  and  abandored  by  their  principal 
officers,  they  at  length  surrendered. 


THE    EMPIRE.  251 


Sea-fight,  near  Actium. 

singular  and  unheard  of  project.  26.  This  was  to  convey 
her  whole  fleet  over  the  Isthmus  of  Su'ez  into  the  Red  Sea, 
and  thereby  save  herself,  with  all  her  treasures,  in  another 
region  beyond  the  power  of  Rome.  27.  Some  of  her  ves- 
sels were  actually  transported  thither,  pursuant  to  her  or- 
ders ;  but  the  Arabians  having  burnt  them,  and  Antony 
dissuading  her  from  the  design,  she  abandoned  it  for  the 
more  improbable  scheme  of  defending  Egypt  against  the 
conqueror.  28.  She  omitted  nothing  in  her  power  to  put 
this  in  practice,  and  made  all  kinds  of  preparations  for  war, 
hoping,  at  least,  by  these  means  to  obtain  better  terms  from 
Augustus.  In  fact,  she  had  been  more  in  love  with  An- 
tony's fortune  than  his  person ;  and  if  she  could  have  fallen 
upon  any  method  of  saving  herself,  though  even  at  his  ex- 
pense, there  is  little  doubt  but  she  would  have  embraced  it 
with  gladness.  29.  She  had  still  hopes  from  the  power  of 
her  charms,  though  she  was  almost  arrived  at  the  age  of 
forty  :  and  was  desirous  of  trying  upon  Augustus  those  arts 
which  had  already  been  so  successful.  Thus,  in  three  em- 
bassies which  were  sent  from  Antony  to  Augustus  in  Asia, 
the  queen  had  always  her  secret  agents,  charged  with  pro- 
posals in  her  name.  Antony  desired  no  more  than  that  his 
life  might  be  spared,  and  to  have  the  liberty  of  passing  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  obscurity.  To  these  requests 
Augustus  made  no  reply.  30.  Cleopa'tra  also  sent  him 
public  proposals  in  favour  of  her  children  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  privately  resigned  to  him  her  crown,  with  all  the  en- 
signs of  royalty.  To  the  queen's  public  proposal  no  an- 


252  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

swer  was  given ;  to  her  private  offer  he  replied  by  giving 
her  assurances  of  his  favour,  in  case  she  would  send  away 
Antony,  or  put  him  to  death.  31.  These  private  negocia- 
tions  were  not  so  concealed  but  they  came  to  the  knowledge 
of  Antony,  whose  jealousy  and  rage  every  occurrence  now 
contributed  to  heighten.  He  built  a  small  solitary  house 
upon  a  mole  in  the  sea,  and  shut  himself  up,  a  prey  to  those 
passions  that  are  the  tormentors  of  unsuccessful  tyranny. 
There  he  passed  his  time,  shunning  all  commerce  with  man 
kind,  and  professing  to  imitate  Timon,*  the  man-hater.  32. 
However,  his  furious  jealousy  drove  him  from  this  retreat 
into  society ;  for  hearing  that  Cleopa'tra  had  secret  confer- 
ences with  one  Thyrsus,  an  emissary  from  Augustus,  he 
seized  upon  him,  ordered  him  to  be  cruelly  scourged,  and 
sent  him  back  to  his  patron.  At  the  same  time  he  sent 
letters  by  him  importing  that  Thyrsus  had  been  chastised 
for  insulting  a  man  in  misfortunes  ;  but  withal  he  gave 
Augustus  permission  to  revenge  himself  by  scourging  Hip- 
par'chus,  Antony's  freedman,  in  the  same  manner.  The 
revenge,  in  this  case,  would  have  been  highly  pleasing  to 
Antony,  as  Hippar'chus  had  left  him,  to  join  the  fortunes  of 
his  more  successful  rival. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  obstacle  remained  to  the  ambition  of  Augustas,  and  how  did 

he  attempt  its  removal  7 

2.  How  was  Antony  at  this  time  employed 

3.  Did  he  keenly  feel  his  misfortune  1 

4.  Was  she  eminently  skilled  in  the  art  of  pleasing  1 

5.  Was  not  Antony  lavish  in  his  favours  to  her ! 

6.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  folly  ? 

7.  By  what  means  did  he  seek  a  quarrel  1 

8.  How  was  this  measure  approved  by  Antony  and  Cleopatra  1 

9.  What  imprudent  resolutions  did  he  adopt] 
VO.  Did  he  do  this  publicly  1 

11.  What  farther  favours  did  he  bestow  on  herl 

!  2.  Did  Augustus  immediately  commence  hostilities  ] 

*  Ti'mon,  the  misanthrope,  was  born  near  Athens,  B.  C.  420.  He 
declared  himself  the  enemy  of  the  human  race,  and  had  a  companion 
named  Apeman'tus,  who  possessed  a  similar  disposition.  The  latter 
asking  him  one  day  why  he  paid  such  respect  to  Alcibi'ades,  "  It  is," 
said  the  churl,  "  because  I  foresee  he  will  prove  the  ruin  of  the  Athe'ni- 
dns,  my  countrymen."  (Plutarch.) 


THE    EMPIRE/  253 

13.  What  complaints  did  Antony  make  of  Augustus] 

14.  Did  Augustus  notice  these  accusations'! 

15.  What  effect  had  his  reply  on  Antony! 

16.  Were  these  military  preparations  formidable? 

17.  What  advantages  did  Antony  ofTer  Augustus? 

18.  What  was  the  respective  strength  of  the  armies? 

19.  Describe  the  preparations  for  this  great  conflict? 

20.  Was  the  engagement  well  contested  ? 

21.  What  extraordinary  circumstance  decided  its  fate? 

22.  Did  he  reproach  Cleopatra  for  her  timidity ! 

23.  Had  Antony  any  resources  left ! 

24.  How  did  he  receive  this  news? 

25.  How  did  Cleopatra  act  in  this  exigence  ? 

26.  What  was  this  project  ? 

27.  Was  it  put  in  execution? 

28.  How  did  she  attempt  this,  and  with  what  views  ? 

29.  What  farther  hopes  had  she  of  favour? 

30.  What  proposals  did  she  make,  and  how  were  they  received ! 

31.  Was  Antony  aware  of  these  negociations  ? 

32.  Did  he  persist  in  thus  secluding  himself? 


SECTION  VIII. 

1.  AUGUSTUS  advanced  with  another  army  against  Pellu'- 
siuin,*  which,  by  its  strong  situation,  might  have  retarded 
his  progress  for  some  time.  But  the  governor  of  the  city, 
either  wanting  courage  to  defend  it,  or  previously  instructed 
by  Cleopa'tra  to  give  it  up,  permitted  him  to  take  posses- 
sion ;  so  that  Augus'tus  had  now  no  obstacle  in  his  way  to 
Alexandria,  whither  he  marched  with  all  expedition.  2. 
Antony,  upon  his  arrival,  sallied  out  to  oppose  him,  fighting 
with  desperation,  and  putting  the  enemy's  cavalry  to  flight. 
3.  This  slight  advantage  once  more  revived  his  declining 
hopes  ;  and,  being  naturally  vain,  he  re-entered  Alexan'dria 
in  triumph.  Then  going,  armed  as  he  was,  to  the  palace, 
and  embracing  Cleopa'tra,  he  presented  to  her  a  soldier  who 
had  distinguished  himself  in  the  engagement.  4.  The  queen 
rewarded  him  very  magnificently,  presenting  him  with  a 
helmet  and  breastplate  of  gold.  With  these,  however,  the 
soldier  deserted  in  the  night  to  the  other  army,  prudently 
resolving  to  secure  his  riches  by  keeping  on  the  strongest 
side.  5.  Antony,  not  able  to  bear  this  defection  without 
fresh  indignation,  resolved  to  make  a  bold  expiring  effort  by 

•  A  strong  city  of  Ejypt 


254  HISTORY    OF    ROMK. 

sea  and  land,  out  previously  offered  to  fight  his  adversary 
in  single  combat.  Augus'tus,  however,  too  well  knew  ilia 
inequality  of  their  situations  to  comply  with  this  forlorn 
proposal ;  he,  therefore,  coolly  replied,  "  Antony  has  ways 
enough  to  die  besides  in  single  combat." 

6.  The  next  day,  he  posted  the  few  troops  he  had  re- 
maining upon  a  rising  ground  near  the  city,  whence  he  sent 
orders  to  his  galleys  to  engage  the  enemy.  There  he  waited 
to  be  a  spectator  of  the  combat ;  and  at  first  he  had  the  sa- 
tisfaction to  see  them  advance  in  good  order.  7.  But  his 
joy  was  soon  turned  into  rage,  when  he  beheld  his  ships 
only  saluting  those  of  Augus'tus,  and  both  fleets  uniting  to- 
gether and  sailing  back  into  the  harbour,  and  at  the  same 
time  his  cavalry  deserting  him.  He  tried,  however,  to  lead 
on  his  infantry ;  but  these  were  easily  vanquished,  and  he 
himself  compelled  to  return  into  the  town.  8.  His  fury 
was  now  ungovernable,  crying  out  as  he  passed  that  he  was 
betrayed  by  Cleopa'tra,  and  delivered  up  to  those  who,  for 
her  sake  alone,  were  his  enemies.  In  these  suspicions  he 
was  not  deceived ;  for  it  was  by  secret  orders  from  the 
queen  that  the  fleet  passed  over  to  the  enemy. 

9.  Cleopa'tra  had  for  a  long  while  dreaded  the  effects  of 
Antony's  jealousy ;  and  had  some  time  before  prepared  a 
method  of  obviating  the  effects  of  any  sudden  sallies  it 
might  produce.  10.  Near  the  temple  of  Isis  she  had 
erected  a  building,  which  was  seemingly  designed  for  a 
sepulchre.  Hither  she  moved  her  treasure  and  most  valua- 
ble effects,  covering  them  with  torches,  fagots,  and  other 
combustible  matter.  11.  This  sepulchre  she  designed  to 
answer  a  double  purpose,  as  well  to  screen  her  from  the 
sudden  resentments  of  Antony,  as  to  make  Augustus  believe 
that  she  would  burn  all  her  treasure,  in  case  he  refused 
proper  terms  of  capitulation.  Here,  therefore,  she  retired 
from  Antony's  fury — shutting  the  fortified  gates,  and  giving 
orders  to  have  it  reported  that  she  was  dead.  12.  This  news 
soon  reached  Antony,  and  it  recalled  all  his  former  love  and 
tenderness.  Subject  to  every  gust  of  passion,  and  each  of 
them  in  the  extreme,  he  now  lamented  her  death  with  the 
same  violence  that  he  had  just  before  seemed  to  desire  it. 
"  Miserable  man  !"  exclaimed  he,  "  what  is  there  now  worth 
living  for  ?  since  all  that  could  soothe  or  soften  my  cares 
is  departed !  O  Cleopa'tra !  our  separation  does  not  so  much 
afflict  me,  as  the  disgrace  I  suffer,  in  permitting  a  woman  to 
instruct  me  in  the  ways  of  dying."  13.  He  now  called  to 


THE    EMPIRE.  255 


Death  of  Erot. 


him  one  of  his  frcedmen,  named  Eros,  whom  he  had  en- 
gaged, by  oath,  to  kill  him,  whenever  fortune  should  drive 
him  to  this  last  resource,  and  commanded  him  to  perform 
his  promise.  This  faithful  follower  drew  his  sword,  as  if 
going  instantly  to  strike  the  blow,  when,  turning  his  face, 
he  plunged  it  into  his  own  bosom,  and  dropped  at  his  mas- 
ter's feet.  14.  Antony,  for  a  while,  hung  over  his  faithful 
servant,  charmed  with  his  fidelity.  Then  snatching  up  the 
sword  he  stabbed  himself  in  the  belly,  and  fell  backward 
upon  a  couch.  15.  The  wound  was  mortal;  yet  the  blood 
stopping,  he  recovered  .his  spirits,  and  earnestly  conjured 
those  who  were  come  into  the  room  to  put  an  end  to  his 
life;  but  they  all  fled,  seized  with  fright  and  horror.  16. 
He  continued  in  this  miserable  condition  till  he  was  in- 
formed by  one  of  the  queen's  secretaries,  that  his  mistress 
was  still  alive,  and  begged  that  he  would  suffer  himself  to 
be  transported  to  the  monument  where  she  was.  He  was 
accordingly  brought  to  the  sepulchre ;  but  Cleopa'tra,  at- 
tended by  her  two  women  only,  durst  by  no  means  per- 
mit the  gate  to  be  opened,  but  from  the  window  threw 
down  fords,  with  which,  with  great  difficulty,  they  drew 
him  up.  17.  Antony,  bathed  in  his  blood,  held  out  his 
hands  to  Cleopa'tra,  and  faintly  endeavoured  to  raise  him- 
self from  the  couch  on  which  he  had  been  laid.  The 
queen  gave  way  to  sorrow,  tore  her  clothes,  beat  her  breast, 
and  kissing  the  wound  of  which  he  was  dying,  called  him 
her  husliiuid,  her  lord,  her  emperor.  18.  Antony  entreated 
her  to  moderate  the  transports  of  her  grief,  and  to  preserve 
her  life,  if  she  could  be  able  to  do  it  with  honour.  "As  for 


256  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

me,  lament  not  my  misfortunes,"  he  said ;  "  but  congratulate 
me  upon  the  happiness  which  I  have  enjoyed ;  I  have  lived 
the  greatest  and  most  powerful  of  men ;  and  though  I  fall, 
my  fate  is  not  ignominious ;  a  Roman  myself,  I  am,  at  last, 
by  a  Roman  overcome?'  Having  thus  said,  he  expired. 

19.  Proculei'us  now  made  his  appearance  by  command 
of  Augus'tus,  who  had  been  informed  of  Antony's  desperate 
conduct.  He  was  sent  to  try  all  means  of  getting  Cleopa'tra 
into  his  power.  20.  Augustus  had  a  double  motive  for  his 
solicitude  on  this  occasion ;  one  was — to  prevent  her  de- 
stroying the  treasures  she  had  taken  with  her  into  the  tomb ; 
the  other — to  preserve  her  person,  as  an  ornament  to  grace 
his  triumph.  21.  Cleopa'tra,  however,  was  upon  her  guard, 
and  rejected  any  conference  with  Proculei'us,  except  through 
the  gate,  which  was  well  secured.  At  length,  having  pro- 
cured a  ladder,  he,  with  two  of  Augustus's  soldiers,  entered 
by  the  same  window  through  which  Antony  had  been  drawn 
up.  Cleopa'tra,  perceiving  what  had  happened,  drew  a 
poinard,  that  hung  at  her  girdle,  to  stab  herself;  but  Procu- 
lei'us forced  it  from  her.  22.  Augustus,  pleased  to  find  her 
in  his  power,  sent  Epaphrodi'tus  to  bring  her  to  his  palace, 
and  to  watch  her  with  the  utmost  circumspection.  He  was 
ordered  to  Use  her,  in  every  respect,  with  that  deference  and 
submission  which  were  due  to  her  rank,  and  to  do  every 
thing  in  his  power  to  render  her  captivity  tolerable. 

23.  Though  kings  and  generals  made  interest  for  Antony's 
body,  in  order  to  pay  the  last  honours  to  it,  this  consolation 
was  reserved  for  Cleopa'tra.  She  alone  was  permitted  to 
have  the  honour  of  granting  Antony  the  rites  of  burial,  and 
was  furnished  with  every  thing  becoming  his  dignity  to 
receive,  or  her  love  to  offer.  24.  Yet  still  she  languished 
under  her  new  confinement.  Her  many  losses,  her  frantic 
sorrow,  the  blows  which  she  had  given  her  bosom,  pro- 
duced a  fever,  which  she  wished  to  increase.  She  resolved, 
by  abstaining  from  nourishment,  to  starve  herself  to  death, 
under  the  pretence  of  a  regimen  necessary  for  her  disorder. 
25.  But  Augus'tus,  being  made  acquainted  with  the  real 
motive  by  her  physicians,  began  to  threaten  her,  with  regard 
to  the  safety  of  her  children,  in  case  she  should  perish.  The 
fear  of  being  the  cause  of  their  death  was  a  motive  she  could 
not  resist.  Cleopa'tra,  therefore,  allowed  herself  to  bo 
treated  as  was  thought  proper,  and  she  recovered. 

26.  In  the  mean  time  Augustus  made  his  entry  into  Alex- 
an'dria,  taking  care  to  mitigate  the  fears  of  the  inhabitants, 


THE    EMPIRE.  237 

hy  conversing  familiarly  with  Ar'cus,  a  philosopher,  and  a 
native  of  the  place.  The  citizens,  however,  trembled  at  his 
approach.  And  when  he  placed  himself  upon  the  tribunal, 
they  prostrated  themselves,  with  their  faces  to  the  ground, 
before  him,  like  criminals  who  waited  the  sentence  for  their 
execution.  27.  Angus 'tus  presently  ordered  them  to  rise, 
telling  them  that  three  motives  induced  him  to  pardon  them : 
his  respect  for  Alexander,  who  was  the  founder  of  their  city ; 
his  admiration  of  its  beauty ;  and  his  friendship  for  Ar'cus, 
their  fellow  citizen.  28.  Two  only  of  particular  note  were 
put  to  death  upon  this  occasion ;  Antony's  eldest  son,  An- 
tyl'lus,  and  Ceesa'rio,  the  son  of  Julius  Caesar,  both  betrayed 
into  his  hands  by  their  respective  tutors,  who  themselves 
suffered  for  their  perfidy  shortly  after.  As  for  the  rest  of 
Cleopa'tra's  children,  he  treated  them  with  great  gentleness, 
leaving  them  to  the  care  of  those  who  were  intrusted  with 
their  education,  to  whom  he  gave  orders  to  provide  them 
with  every  thing  suitable  to  their  birth.  29.  Cleopa'tra, 
being  recovered,  Augus'tus  visited  her  in  person:  she  re- 
ceived him  lying  on  a  couch ;  but,  upon  his  entering  the 
apartment,  rose  up,  habited  in  a  loose  robe,  and  prostrated 
herself  before  him.  Her  misfortunes  had  given  an  air  of 
severity  to  her  features  ;  her  hair  was  dishevelled,  her  voice 
trembling,  her  complexion  pale,  and  her  eyes  swollen  with 
weeping ;  yet,  still,  her  natural  beauty  seemed  to  gleam 
thiough  the  distresses  that  surrounded  her ;  and  the  grace 
of  her  motions,  and  the  alluring  softness  of  her  looks,  still 
bore  testimony  to  the  former  power  of  her  charms.  30. 
Augus'tus  raised  her  with  his  usual  complaisance,  and,  de- 
siring her  to  sit,  placed  himself  beside  her.  31.  Cleopa'tra 
had  been  prepared  for  this  interview,  and  made  use  of  every 
art  to  propitiate  the  conqueror.  She  tried  apologies,  en- 
treaties and  allurements,  to  obtain  his  favour  and  soften  his 
resentment.  She  began  by  attempting  to  justify  her  con- 
duct; but  when  her  skill  failed  against  manifest  proofs,  she 
turned  her  defence  into  supplications.  She  reminded  him 
of  Caesar's  humanity  to  those  in  distress  ;  she  read  some  of 
his  letters  to  her,  full  of  tenderness,  and  expatiated  upon  the 
intimacy  that  subsisted  between  them  "  But  of  what  ser- 
vice," cried  she,  "  arc  now  all  his  benefits  to  me  !  Why  did 
I  not  die  with  him  !  Yet,  still  he  lives — methinks  I  see  him 
still  before  me  !  he  revives  in  you."  32.  Augus'tus,  who 
was  IKI  stranger  to  this  method  of  address,  remained  firm 
against  all  attacks  ;  answering  with  a  cold  indifference 
Y  2 


258  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

which  obliged  her  to  give  her  attempts  a  different  turn 
33.  She  now  addressed  his  avarice,  presenting  him  with  an 
inventory  of  her  treasure  and  jewels.  This  gave  occasion 
to  a  very  singular  scene,  that  may  serve  to  show  that  the 
little  decorums  of  breeding  were  then  by  no  means  attended 
to  as  in  modern  times.  34.  One  of  her  stewards  having 
alleged,  that  the  inventory  was  defective,  and  that  she  had 
secreted  a  part  of  her  effects,  she  fell  into  the  most  extrava- 
gant passion,  started  from  her  couch,  and  snatching  him  by 
the  hair,  gave  him  repeated  blows  on  the  face.  Augus'tus, 
smiling  at  her  indignation,  led  her  to  the  couch,  and  desired 
her  to  be  pacified.  To  this  she  replied,  that  it  was  insuf- 
ferable to  be  insulted  in  the  presence  of  one  whom  she  so 
highly  esteemed.  "  And  admitting,"  cried  she,  "  that  I 
have  secreted  a  few  ornaments,  am  I  to  blame,  when  they 
are  reserved,  not  for  myself,  but  for  Liv'ia  and  Octa'via, 
whom  I  hope  to  make  my  intercessors  with  you  ?"  35.  The 
apology,  which  intimated  a  desire  of  living,  was  not  dis- 
agreeable to  Augustus,  who  politely  assured  her  she  was  at 
liberty  to  keep  whatever  she  had  reserved,  and  that  in  every 
thing  she  should  be  indulged  to  the  height  of  her  expects 
tions.  He  then  took  leave,  and  departed,  imagining  he  had 
reconciled  her  to  life,  and  to  the  indignity  of  being  shown 
in  the  intended  triumph,  which  he  was  preparing  for  his  re- 
turn to  Rome  ;  but  in  this  he  was  deceived.  36.  Cleopa'tra 
had  all  this  time  corresponded  with  Dolabel'la,  a  young  Ro- 
man of  high  birth  in  the  camp  of  Augustus,  who,  from  com- 
passion, or  perhaps  from  stronger  motives,  was  interested  in 
her  misfortunes.  By  him  she  was  secretly  informed  lha« 
Augustus  determined  to  send  her  and  her  children,  within 
three  days,  to  Rome,  to  grace  his  triumphant  entry.  37. 
She,  at  length,  therefore,  determined  upon  dying;  but  first 
throwing  herself  upon  Antony's  coffin,  bewailed  her  cap- 
tivity, and  renewed  her  protestations  not  to  survive  him. 
Having  bathed,  and  ordered  a  sumptuous  banquet,  she  at- 
tired herself  in  the  most  splendid  manner.  After  partaking 
of  the  banquet,  she  commanded  all,  except  her  two  women, 
to  leave  the  apartment.  She  had  contrived  to  have  an  asp 
secretly  conveyed  to  her  in  a  basket  of  fruit,  and  then  wrote 
to  Augustus,  to  inform  him  of  her  fatal  purpose,  desiring  t6 
be  buried  in  the  same  tomb  with  Antony.  38.  Augustus, 
upon  receiving  the  letter,  instantly  despatched  messengers 
in  hopes  to  stop  the  fulfilment  of  her  intentions  ;  but  they 
arrived  too  late.  Upon  entering  the  chamber,  they  beheld 


THE    EMPIRE. 


259 


Death  of  Cleopatra. 

Cleopa'tra  lying  dead  upon  her  couch,  arrayed  in  royal 
robes.  Near  her,  I'ras,  one  of  her  faithful  attendants,  was 
stretched  at  the  feet  of  her  mistress ;  and  Char'mion,* 
the  other,  scarcely  alive,  was  settling  the  diadem  upon 
Cleopa'tra's  head.  "  Alas  !"  cried  one  of  the  messengers, 
"  is  this  well  done,  Charmion  ?"  "  Yes,"  replied  she,  "  it 
is  well  done — such  a  death  becomes  a  glorious  queen,  de- 
scended from  a  race  of  glorious  ancestors."  Pronouncing 
those  words,  she  dropped  and  expired  with  her  much  loved 
mistress.! 


Questions  for  Examination. 


\.  What  new  conquest  was  achieved  by  Augustas  1 

2.  What  was  Antony's  conduct  on  his  arrival  1 

3.  Was  he  elated  by  this  slight  success  ? 

4.  How  was  he  rewarded,  and  in  what  manner  did  he  evince  liis  grati- 

tude ? 

5.  What  were  Antony's  feelings  and  conduct  on  the  occasion  ? 

6.  Did  he  attempt  farther  hostilities  ? 

7.  Was  this  satisfaction  well  founded  ? 

8.  How  was  he  affected  by  this  ill  success  ? 

9.  Was  Cleopatra  prepared  for  these  misfortunes  ? 

10.  What  precautions  had  she  taken? 

1 1.  What  was  her  design  in  building  this  sepulchre? 

12.  Was  Antony  affected  by  this  news  1 

•   Pronounced  Kar'mion. 

f  Cleopatra  wa.s  forty  years  old  at  the  time  of  her  death,  and  haJ 
lived  twelve  years  with  Antony. 


260  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

13.  What  followed  ? 

14.  Did  Antony  persist  in  his  purpose  T 

15.  Did  he  immediately  expire? 

16.  Had  he  another  interview  with  Cleopatra? 

17.  18.  Relate  the  particulars  of  this  interview  1 

1 9.  How  did  Augustus  act  on  this  occasion  ? 

20.  Why  was  Augustus  anxious  to  preserve  the  life  of  Cleopatra? 

21.  Did  he  obtain  ready  admittance  to  her,  and  what  was  the  conse- 

quence ? 

22.  How  was  she  treated  ? 

23.  By  whom  were  the  last  honours  paid  to  Antony  ? 

24.  Did  this  kindness  reconcile  her  to  her  situation? 

25.  By  what  means  did  Augustus  overcome  her  resolution  ? 

26.  What  circumstances  attended  the  entrance  of  Augustus  into  Alex 
i  andria  ? 

27.  Were  their  fears  realized  ? 

28.  Who  fell  victims  on  the  occasion  ? 

29.  Did  Augustus  visit  Cleopatra,  and  how  was  he  received  ? 

30.  What  was  his  conduct  towards  her  ? 

31.  How  did  Cleopatra  conduct  herself  at  this  interview  1 

32.  Was  Augustus  moved  by  her  artifices? 

33.  Mention  her  next  attempt  and  its  consequence. 

34.  Relate  the  particulars. 

35.  Was  the  apology  accepted  ? 

36.  With  whom  did  Cleopatra  correspond,  and  what  did  she  learn  ? 

37.  What  resolution  did  she  form,  and  how  did  she  accomplish  it  ? 

38.  Did  not  Augustus  attempt  to  prevent  her  resolution,  and  was  h« 

successful  ? 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

SECTION  I. 

1.  BY  the  death  of  Antony,  Augus'tus  having  become 
master  of  the  Roman  empire,  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph ; 
where,  by  feasts  and  magnificent  shows,  he  began  to  obliter- 
ate the  impressions  of  his  former  cruelty ;  and  thencefor- 
ward resolved  to  secure,  by  his  clemency,  a  throne,  the 
foundations  of  which  were  laid  in  blood.  2.  He  was  now 
at  the  head  of  the  most  extensive  empire  that  mankind  had 
ever  beheld.  The  former  spirit  of  the  Romans,  and  those 
characteristic  marks  that  distinguished  them  from  others, 
were  now  totally  lost.  The  city  was  inhabited  by  a  con- 
course from  all  the  countries  of  the  world ;  and  being  con- 
sequently divested  of  all  just  patriotic  principles,  perhaps  a 


THE    EMPIRE.  261 

monarchy  is  the  best  form  of  government  that  could  be  found 
to  unite  its  members.  3.  However,  it  was  very  remarkable, 
that  during  these  long  contentions  among  themselves,  and 
these  horrid  devastations  by  civil  war,  the  state  was  daily 
growing  more  formidable  and  powerful,  and  completed  the 
destruction  of  all  the  kings  who  presumed  to  oppose  it. 

4.  The  first  care  of  Augus'tus  was  to  assure  himself  of 
the  friends  of  Antony  ;  to  which  end  he  publickly  reported 
that  he  had  burnt  all  Antony's  letters  and  papers  without 
reading  them,  convinced  that,  while  any  thought  themselves 
suspected,  they  would  be  fearful  of  even  offering  him  their 
friendship. 

5.  He  had  gained  the  kingdom  by  his  army,  but  he  re- 
solved to  govern  it  by  the  senate.  This  body,  though  greatly 
fallen  from  its  ancient  splendor,  he  knew  to  be  the  best 
constituted,  and  most  remarkable  for  wisdom  and  justice. 
To  the  senate,  therefore,  he  gave  the  chief  power  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  his  government,  while  he  himself  secured 
the  fidelity  of  the  people  and  the  army  by  donatives,  and 
acts  of  favour.     6.  By  these  means  the  odium  of  severity 
fell  upon  the  senate,  and  the  popularity  of  pardon  was  solely 
his  own.     Thus  restoring  splendor  to  the  senate,  and  dis- 
countenancing corruption,  he  pretended  to  reserve  to  him- 
self a  very  moderate  share  of   authority,  to  which   none 
could  object :  namely,  power  to  compel  all  ranks  of  the  state 
to  do  their  duty.     7.  This  was,  in  fact,  reserving  absolute 
dominion  in  his  own  hands ;  but  the  misguided  people  be- 
gan to  look  upon  his  moderation  with  astonishment :  they 
considered   themselves  as  restored  to  their  former  freedom, 
except  the  capacity  of  promoting  sedition  ;  and  the  senate 
supposed  their  power  re-established  in  all  things  but  their 
tendency  to  injustice.     It  was  even  said  that  the  Romans, 
by  such  a  government,  lost  nothing  of  the  happiness  that 
liberty  could  produce,  and  were  exempt  from  all  the  misfor- 
tunes it  could  occasion.     8.  This  observation  might  have 
some  truth  under  such  a  monarch  as  Augustus  now  appeared 
to  be  ;  but  they  were  afterwards  taught  to  change  their  sen- 
timents under  his  successors,  when  they  found  themselves 
afflicted  with  all  the  punishments  that  tyranny  could  inflict, 
or  sedition  make  necessary. 

9.  After  having  established  this  admirable  order,  Augus- 
tus found  himself  agitated  by  difl'erent  passions  ;  and  con- 
sidered, a  long  time,  whether  he  should  keep  the  empire,  or 
restore  the  people  to  their  ancient  liberty.  1 0.  But  he  adopted 


262  HISTORY    OF    HOME. 

the  advice  of  Maece'nas,  which  was,  to  continue  in  power: 
and  he  was  afterwards  swayed  by  him  on  every  occasion. 
By  the  advice  of  that  minister,  he  became  gentle,  affable,  and 
humane :  he  encouraged  men  of  learning,  and  gave  them 
much  of  his  time  and  his  friendship.  These  in  their  turn 
relieved  his  most  anxious  hours,  and  circulated  his  praise 
throughout  the  empire. 

11.  Thus  having  given  peace  and  happiness  to  his  sub- 
jects, and  being  convinced  of  the  attachment  of  all  orders 
of  the  state  to  his  person,  he  resolved  upon  impressing  the 
people  with  an  idea  of  his  magnanimity,  by  making  a  show 
of  resigning  his  authority.  12.  To  this  end,  having  pre- 
viously instructed  his  creatures  in  the  senate  how  to  act,  he 
addressed  them  in  a  studied  speech,  importing  the  difficulty 
of  governing  so  extensive  an  empire ;  a  task  to  which,  he 
said,  none  but  the  immortal  gods  were  equal.  He  modestly 
urged  his  own  inability,  though  impelled  by  every  motive 
to  undertake  it ;  and  then,  w^ith  a  degree  of  seeming  gene- 
rosity, freely  gave  up  all  that  power  which  his  arms  had 
gained,  and  Avhich  the  senate  had  confirmed,  giving  them 
to  understand,  that  the  true  spirit  of  the  Romans  was  not 
lost  in  him.  13.  This  speech  operated  upon  the  senate  va- 
riously, as  they  were  more  or  less  in  the  secret.  Many  be- 
lieved the  sincerity  of  his  conduct  as  an  act  of  heroism  une 
quailed  by  any  thing  that  had  hitherto  appeared ;  others, 
though  ignorant  of  his  motives,  distrusted  his  designs.  Some 
there  were,  who,  having  greatly  suffered  during  the  popular 
commotions,  were  fearful  of  their  being  renewed ;  but  the 
majority,  who  were  properly  instructed  by  his  ministers,  fre- 
quently attempted  to  interrupt  him  while  speaking,  and 
received  his  proposals  with  pretended  indignation.  14. 
These  unanimously  besought  him  not  to  resign  the  adminis- 
tration ;  and,  upon  his  continuing  to  decline  their  request, 
tuey  in  a  manner  compelled  him  to  comply.  However,  that 
his  person  might  be  in  greater  security,  they  immediately 
decreed  that  the  pay  of  his  guard  should  be  doubled.  15. 
On  the  other  hand,  that  he  might  seem  to  make  concessions 
on  his  side,  he  permitted  the  senate  to  govern  the  weak,  in- 
ternal provinces,  while  the  most  powerful  provinces,  and 
those  that  required  the  greatest  armies  for  their  defence, 
were  taken  entirely  under  his  own  command.  Over  these 
he  assumed  the  government  for  ten  years  only,  leaving  the 
people  still  in  hopes  of  regaining  their  ancient  freedom 
at  the  same  time,  however,  laying  his  measures  so  well 


THE    EMPIRE.  20.1 

that  his  government  was  renewed  every  ten  years,  to  his 
death. 

16.  This  show  of  resignation  only  served  to  confirm  him 
in  the  empire,  and  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  New  hon- 
ours were  heaped  upon  him.  He  was  now  first  called  Au- 
gustus (a  name  I  have  hitherto  used  as  that  by  which  he  is 
best  known  in  history.)  A  laurel  was  ordered  to  be  planted 
at  his  gates.  That  house  was  called  the  palace  wherever 
he  made  his  abode.  He  was  confirmed  in  the  title  of  father 
of  his  country,  and  his  person  declared  sacred  and  inviola- 
ble. 17.  In  short,  flattery  seemed  on  the  rack  to  find  out 
new  modes  of  pleasing  him ;  but,  though  he  despised  the 
arts  of  the  senate,  he  permitted  their  homage,  well  knowing 
that,  among  mankind,  titles  produce  a  respect  which  enforces 
authority. 

18.  Upon  entering  into  his  tenth  consulship,  the  senate, 
by  oath,  approved  of  all  his  acts,  and  set  him  wholly  above 
the  power  of  the  laws.  They,  some  time  after,  offered  to 
swear  not  only  to  all  the  laws  he  had  made,  but  such  as  he 
should  make  for  the  future.  19.  It  was  customary  with 
fathers,  upon  their  death-beds,  to  command  their  children 
to  carry  oblations  to  the  Capitol,  with  an  inscription,  that  at 
the  day  of  their  deaths  they  left  Augustus  in  health.  It  was 
determined  that  no  man  should  be  put  to  death  on  such  days 
as  the  emperor  entered  the  city.  Upon  a  dearth  of  provi- 
sions, the  people  entreated  him  to  accept  of  the  dictatorship ; 
but  he  would  by  no  means  assume  the  title  of  dictator, 
which  had  been  abolished  by  law. 

20.  An  accumulation  of  titles  and  employments  did  not 
in  the  least  diminish  his  assiduity  in  fulfilling  the  duties  of 
each.  Several  very  wholesome  edicts  were  passed  by  his 
command,  tending  to  suppress  corruption  in  the  senate,  and 
licentiousness  in  the  people.  21.  He  ordained  that  none 
should  exhibit  a  show  of  gladiators  without  an  order  from 
the  senate;  and  then  not  oftener  than  twice  a  year,  nor  with 
more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  at  a  time.  This  law  was 
extremely  necessary  at  so  corrupt  a  period  of  the  empire, 
when  armies  of  these  unfortunate  men  were  brought  at  onre 
upon  the  stage,  and  compelled  to  fight,  often,  till  half  of  thorn 
were  slain.  22.  It  had  been  usual  also  with  the  knights, 
and  women  of  the  first  distinction,  to  exhibit  themselves  as 
dancers  upon  the  theatre ;  he  ordered  that  not  only  these, 
but  their  children  and  grand-children  should  be  restrained 
from  such  exercises  for  the  fulure.  23.  He  fined  many 


264  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

that  hail  refused  to  marry  at  a  certain  age,  and  rewarded 
such  as  had  many  children.  He  enacted  that  the  senators 
should  be  held  in  great  reverence ;  adding  to  their  dignity 
what  he  had  taken  from  their  power.  24.  He  made  a  law, 
that  no  man  should  have  the  freedom  of  the  city  without  a 
previous  examination  into  his  merit  and  character.  He  ap- 
pointed new  rules  and  limits  to  the  manumission  of  slaves, 
and  was  himself  very  strict  in  the  observance  of  them.  With 
regard  to  dramatic  performers,  of  whom  he  was  very  fond, 
he  severely  examined  their  morals,  not  allowing  licentious- 
ness in  their  lives,  nor  indecency  in  their  actions.  Though 
he  encouraged  the  athletic  exercises,  he  would  not  permit 
women  to  be  present  at  them.  25.  In  order  to  prevent 
bribery  in  suing  for  offices,  he  took  considerable  sums  of 
money  from  the  candidates  by  way  of  pledge ;  and  if  any 
indirect  practices  were  proved  against  them,  they  were 
obliged  to  forfeit  all.  26.  Slaves  had  been  hitherto  dis- 
allowed to  confess  anything  against  their  own  masters  ;  but 
he  abolished  the  practice,  and  first  sold  the  slave  to  another, 
which  altering  the  property,  his  examination  became  free. 
27.  These  and  other  laws,  all  tending  to  extirpate  vice  or 
deter  from  crimes,  gave  the  manners  of  the  people  another 
complexion ;  and  the  rough  character  of  the  Roman  soldier 
was  now  softened  into  that  of  the  refined  citizen.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  death  of  Antony  1 

2.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Roman  people  at  this  time  ? 

3.  Did  these  convulsions  weaken  the  empire  1 

4.  What  was  the  first  care  of  Augustus  ] 

5.  In  what  way  did  he  propose  to  govern  1 

6.  What  were  the  consequences  of  this  conduct  1 

7.  What  advantages  did  the  Romans  fancy  they  enjoyed  ? 

8.  Was  this  observation  correct  1 

9.  What  conflicting  passions  agitated  the  mind  of  Augustus  7 
0.  Whose  advice  did  he  adopt,  and  what  was  that  advice  ? 

'.  1 .  What  artifice  did  he  employ  to  confirm  his  power ! 

12.  How  did  he  make  his  intentions  known  1 

13.  What  effect  was  produced  by  this  proposal  1 

14.  What  was  their  conduct  on  this  occasion  ? 

x*  In  his  sixth  consulship  Augustus  commanded  a  census  to  be  made, 
when  there  was  found  the  astonishing  number  of  4,060,000  inhabitants 
in  Rome,  which  was  fifty  miles  in  circumference. 


THE   EMPIRE.  265 

1 5.  What  farther  artifices  did  he  employ  1 

1 6.  What  were  the  consequences  of  this  afl'ected  moderation  ? 

17.  Was  he  imposed  upon  by  these  arts? 

18.  What  farther  instances  of  abject  servility  did  the  senate  display  t 

19.  What  else  was  done  to  his  honour  ? 

20.  Did  these  honours  render  him  remiss  1 

21.  What  salutary  law  did  he  enact ! 

22.  What  next  1 

23.  What  regulations  concerning  marriage,  and  respect  to  senators,  di«i 

he  enforce  ? 

24.  IIow  did  he  improve  the  morals  of  the  people  1 

25.  How  did  he  prevent  bribery  7 

26.  By  what  means  did  he  promote  justice? 

27.  What  was  the  consequence  of  these  regulations  1 


SECTION  II. 

1.  AUGUSTUS,  by  his  own  example,  tended  greatly  to  hu- 
manize his  fellow-citizens  ;  for  being  placed  above  all  equal- 
ity, he  had  nothing  to  fear  from  condescension.  He  was 
familiar  with  all,  and  suffered  himself  to  be  reprimanded 
with  the  most  patient  humility.  Though,  by  his  sole  autho- 
rity, he  could  condemn  or  acquit  whomsoever  he  thought 
proper,  he  gave  the  laws  their  proper  course,  and  even 
pleaded  for  persons  he  desired  to  protect.  2.  When  the 
advocate  for  Pri'mus*  desired  to  know,  with  an  insolent  air, 
what  brought  Augustus  into  court,  the  emperor  calmly  re- 
plied, "  The  public  good."  When  one  of  his  veteran  sol- 
diers entreated  his  protection,  Augustus  bid  him  apply  to  an 
advocate.  "  Ah  !"  replied  the  soldier,  "  it  was  not  by  proxy 
that  I  served  you  at  the  battle  of  Ac'tium."  Augustus  was 
so  pleased  that  he  pleaded  his  cause  and  gained  it  for  him. 
One  day  a  petition  was  presented  to  him  with  so  much  awe 
as  to  displease  him.  "  Friend,"  cried  he,  "  you  seem  as  if 
you  were  offering  something  to  an  elephant  rather  than  to  a 
man ;  be  bolder."  3.  Once  as  he  was  sitting  in  judgment, 
Maece'nas  perceiving  that  he  was  inclined  to  be  severe,  and 
not  being  able  to  get  to  him  through  the  crowd,  he  threw  a 
paper  into  his  lap,  on  which  was  written,  "  Arise,  execu- 
tioner !"  Augustus  read  it  without  displeasure,  and  imme- 

•  M.  Primus,  while  governor  of  Macedon,  had  made  an  irruption  into 
the  country  of  the  Odrysians ;  for  this  he  was  prosecuted,  and  pleaded 
that  it  was  by  the  emperor's  orders.  Augustus  denying  this,  L.  Mureua 
put  the  impudent  question  to  him  mentioned  in  the  text. 

z 


266  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

diately  rising,  pardoned  those  whom  he  was  disposed  tc 
condemn.  4.  But  what  most  of  all  showed  a  total  altera- 
tion, was  his  treatment  ol  I'orne'lius  Cinna,  Pompey'g 
grandson.  This  nobleman  had  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
against  him :  Augustus  sent  for  the  other  conspirators,  re- 
primanded them,  and  dismissed  them.  But  resolving  to 
mortify  Cinna  by  the  greatness  of  his  generosity — "  I  have 
twice,  says  he,  "  given  you  your  life,  as  an  enemy  and  as  a 
conspirator :  I  now  give  you  the  consulship  ;  let  us  therefore 
be  friends  for  the  future ;  let  us  contend  only  in  showing 
whether  my  confidence  or  your  fidelity  shall  be  victorious." 

5.  In  the  practice  of  such  virtues  he  passed  a  long  reign. 
In  fact,  he  seemed  the  first  Roman  who  aimed  at  gaining  a 
character  by  the  arts  of  peace,  and  who  obtained  the  affec- 
tions of  the  soldiers  without  any  military  talents  of  his  own : 
nevertheless,  the  Roman  arms,  under  his  lieutenants,  were 
crowned  with  success. 

6.  But  he  had  uneasiness  of  a  domestic  nature  that  dis  • 
tressed  him.     He  had  married  Liv'ia,  the  wife  of  Tibe'rius 
Nero,  by  the  consent  of  her  husband,  when  she  was   six 
months  advanced  in  her  pregnancy.    She  was  an  imperious 
woman,  and,  conscious  of  being  beloved,  controlled  him  at 
her  pleasure.     7.  She  had  two  sons,  Tibe'rius  the  elder, 
and  Dru'sus,  who  was  born  three  months  after  she  had  been 
married  to  Augustus,  and  who  was  thought  to  be  his  own 
son.     The  elder  of  these,  Tibe'rius,  whom  he  afterwards 
adopted,  and  who  succeeded  him  in  the  empire,  was  a  good 
general,  but  of  a  suspicious  and  obstinate  temper,  and  of  a 
conduct  so  turbulent  and  restless,  that  he  was  at  last  exiled 
for  five   years  to  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he  chiefly 
spent  his  time  in  a  retired  manner,  conversing  with   the 
Greeks,  and  addicting  himself  to  literature,  of  which,  how- 
ever he  afterwards  made  but  a  bad  use. 

8.  But  the  greatest  affliction  that  Augustus  experienced 
was  from  the  conduct  of  his  daughter  Julia,  whom  he  had 
by  Scribo'nia,  his  former  wife.  Julia,  whom  he  mairied  to 
his  general  Agrip'pa,  and  afterwards  to  Tibe'rius,  set  no 
bounds  to  her  misconduct.  She  was  arrived  at  that  excess 
of  wickedness,  that  the  very  court  where  her  father  presided 
was  not  exempt  from  her  infamies.  9.  Augustus,  at  first,  had 
thoughts  of  putting  her  to  death :  but,  after  consideration, 
he  banished  her  to  Pandata'ria.*  He  ordered  that  no  per- 

*  An  island  on  the  coast  of  Lucania,  in  Italy ;  now  called  Santa 
Maria. 


THE   EMPIRE.  267 

son  should  come  near  her  without  his  permission,  and  sent 
her  mother  Scribo'nia  along  with  her,  to  bear  her  company. 
When  any  one  attempted  to  intercede  for  Julia,  his  answer 
was,  "  that  fire  and  water  should  sooner  unite  than  he  with 
her."  10.  Augustus,  having  survived  most  of  his  contem- 
poraries, at  length,  in  the  seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age, 
began  to  think  of  retiring  from  the  fatigues  of  state,  and  of 
constituting  Tibe'rius  his  partner  in  the  throne.  He  desired 
the  senate  to  salute  him  no  longer  at  the  palace,  nor  take  it 
amiss,  if,  for  the  future,  he  could  not  converse  with  them  as 
formerly.  11.  From  that  time  Tibe'rius  was  joined  Cu.  c. 
in  the  government  of  the  provinces  with  him,  and  (  762. 
invested  with  nearly  the  same  authority.  However,  Augus- 
tus could  not  entirely  forsake  the  administration,  which 
habit  had  rendered  a  source  of  pleasure  ;  and  he  still  con- 
tinued a  watchful  guardian,  and  showed  himself,  to  the  last, 
a  lover  of  his  people.  12.  Finding  it  now,  therefore,  very 
inconvenient  to  come  to  the  senate,  by  reason  of  his  age,  he 
desired  to  have  twenty  privy-counsellors  assigned  him  for  a 
year ;  and  it  was  decreed,  that  whatever  measures  were  re- 
solved upon  by  them  and  the  consuls,  should  have  entirely 
the  force  of  a  law.  13.  He  seemed  apprehensive  of  his  ap- 
proaching end,  for  he  made  his  will,  and  delivered  it  to  the 
vestal  virgins.  He  then  solemnized  the  census,  or  number- 
ing the  people,  whom  he  found  to  amount  to  four  millions 
one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  thousand ;  which  shows  Rome 
to  be  equal  to  four  of  the  greatest  cities  of  modern  times. 

14.  While  these  ceremonies  were  performing,  in  the  midst 
of  a  mighty  concourse  of  people  in  the  Cam'pus   Mar'tius, 
it  is  said  that  an  eagle  flew  round   the  emperor  several 
times,  and,  directing  its  flight  to   a  neighbouring  temple, 
perched  over  the   name  of  Agrippa :  this    omen   was,   by 
the  augurs,  conceived  to  portend  the  death  of  the  emperor. 

15.  Shortly   after,   having   accompanied    Tibe'rius    in    his 
march  into  Illyr'ia,  he  was  taken  ill.     Returning  thence, 
he   sent    for   Tibe'rius   and    his    most   intimate    friends. 
A  few  hours  before  his  death  he  ordered  a  looking-glass  to 
be  brought,  and  his  hair  to  be  adjusted  with  more  than  usual 
care.     He  then  addressed  his  friends,  whom  he  beheld  sur- 
rounding his  bed,  and  desired  to  know  whether  he  had  pro- 
perly played   his  part  in  life ;  to  which,  being  answered  in 
the  affirmative,  he  cried  out  with  his   last  breath,  "  Then 
give  me  your  applause."     Thus,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six* 
after  reigning  forty-four  years,  he  expired  in  the  arms  of 


208  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Liv'ia,  bidding  her  remember  their  marriage  and  their  last 
farewell.* 

16.  The  death  of  the  emperor  caused  inexpressible  grief 
throughout  the  whole  empire.  It  was,  by  some,  supposed 
that  his  wife  Liv'ia  had  some  hand  in  hastening  it,  with  a 
view  to  procure  the  succession  more  speedily  for  her  son. 
However  this  was,  she  took  care,  for  a  time,  to  keep  the  im- 
portant event  concealed,  by  guarding  all  the  passages  to  the 
palace ;  sometimes  giving  out  that  he  was  recovered,  and 
then  pretending  a  relapse.  At  length,  having  settled  the 
succession  to  her  mind,  she  published  the  emperor's  death ; 
and  at  the  same  time,  the  adoption  of  Tibe'rius  to  the  em- 
pire. 17.  The  emperor's  funeral  was  performed  with  great 
magnificence.  The  senators  being  in  their  places,  Tibe'rius, 
on  whom  that  care  devolved,  pronounced  a  consolatory  ora- 
tion. After  this  his  will  was  read,  wherein  he  made  Tibe'- 
rius and  Liv'ia  his  heirs.  18.  He  was  studious  of  serving  his 
country  to  the  very  last,  and  the  sorrow  of  the  people  seemed 
equal  to  his  assiduity.  It  was  decreed,  that  all  the  women 
should  mourn  for  him  a  whole  year.  Temples  were  erected 
to  him,  divine  honours  were  allowed  him,  and  one  Nume'- 
rius  At'ticus,  a  senator,  willing  to  convert  the  adulation  of 
the  times  to  his  own  benefit,  received  a  large  sum  of  money 
for  swearing  that  he  saw  him  ascending  into  heaven ;  so 
that  no  doubt  remained  among  the  people  concerning  his 
divinity. 

19.  Such  were  the  honours  paid  to  Augustus,  whose 
power  began  in  the  slaughter,  and  terminated  in  the  happi- 
ness of  his  subjects ;  so  that  it  was  said  of  him,  "  that  it 
had  been  good  for  mankind  if  he  had  never  been  born,  or 
if  he  had  never  died."  20.  It  is  possible  that  the  cruelties 
exercised  in  his  triumvirate  were  suggested  by  his  colleagues. 
In  the  case  of  Caesar's  death,  he  might  think  that  revenge 
was  virtue.  Certain  it  is,  that  severities  were  necessary  to 
restore  public  tranquillity  ;  for,  until  the  Roman  spirit  should 
be  eradicated,  no  monarchy  could  be  secure.  21.  He  in 
dulged  his  subjects  in  the  appearance  of  a  republic,  while 

*  The  date  of  Augustus's  reign  is  here  reckoned  from  the  death  of 
Antony,  when  he  became  sole  monarch ;  but  if  it  be  reckoned  from  his 
first  coming  into  power,  soon  after  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar,  it  is  nearly 
66  years.  Augustus  carried  on  his  wars  principally  by  his  lieutenants, 
but  he  went  personally  into  Spain  and  Gaul.  His  bravery,  however, 
has  been  greatly  called  in  question,  and  many  flagrant  instances  of  his 
cowardice  recorded.  How  true  they  may  be  is  not  easy  to  determine.  . 


THE    EMPIRE.  269 

he  made  them  really  happy  in  the  effects  of  a  most  absolute 
monarchy,  administered  with  the  most  consummate  prudence. 
In  this  last  quality  he  seems  to  have  excelled  most  mon- 
archs  ;  and.  indeed,  could  we  separate  Octavius  from  Au- 
gustus, he  was  one  of  the  most  faultless  princes  in  history. 
22.  About  this  time  our  Saviour  was  born  in  Jude'a.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

\.  What  was  the  general  conduct  of  Augustus  ? 

2.  Mention  some  instances  of  his  moderation  1 

3.  What  farther  instance  of  his  moderation  is  on  record  ? 

4.  How  did  he  most  decidedly  show  the  alteration  in  his  disposition  1 

5.  In  what  was  he  particularly  remarkable  7 

6.  Was  he  happy  in  domestic  life  ? 

7.  What  family  had  she,  and  what  was  the  character  of  her  son  ? 

8.  Had  he  no  other  domestic  trials  ? 

9.  In  what  way  was  she  punished  1 

10.  Was  the  reign  of  Augustus  of  considerable  length? 

11.  Did  he  associate  Tiberius  with  him  in  the  government  ? 

12.  By  what  means  did  he  lighten  the  burden  of  government  ? 

1 3.  By  what  measure  did  he  prepare  for  his  approaching  end  ? 

14.  What  omen  portended  his  death? 

15.  How  did  he  meet  his  end  ? 

16.  How  were  the  people  affected  by  his  death,  and  why  was  it  for  » 

time  concealed? 

17.  How  was  his  funeral  celebrated? 

18.  What  honours  were  decreed  him  ? 

19.  Were  those  honours  deserved? 

20.  What  excuses  may  be  made  for  his  early  cruelties  ? 

21.  By  what  means  did  he  secure  his  power  ? 

22.  What  remarkable  event  happened  in  his  reign  ? 


SECTION  III. 

1.  TIBE'RIUS  was  fifty-six  years  old  when  he  took  upon 
him  the  government  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  C  u.  c.762. 
had  lived  in  a  state  of  profound  dissimulation  £  A.  B.  1  0. 
under  Augustus,  and  was  not  yet  hardy  enough  to  sho\r 
himself  in  his  real  character.  In  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  nothing  appeared  but  prudence,  generosity,  and  cle 

*  The  temple  of  Janus   vras  now  shut  for  the  third  time  since  tc« 
foundation  of  the  city. 

z  2 


•4t\3  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

mency.*  2.  But  the  successes  of  his  nephew,  German 'i- 
cus,  son  of  his  late  brother  Dru'sus,  over  the  Germans,  first 
brought  his  natural  disposition  to  light,  and  discovered  the 
malignity  of  his  mind  without  disguise.  3.  He  was  hardly 
settled  on  his  throne,  when  he  received  intelligence  that  the 
legions  in  Panno'nia,  hearing  of  the  death  of  Augustus,  and 
desirous  of  novelty,  had  revolted ;  but  these  were  soon 
quieted,  and  Percen'nius,  their  leader,  slain.  4.  A  com- 
motion in  Germany  was  attended  with  much  more  important 
consequences.  The  legions  in  that  part  of  the  empire  were 
conducted  by  German'icus,  a  youth  of  most  admirable  quali- 
ties, who  had  been,  at  the  late  emperor's  request,  adopted,  in 
order  to  succeed  to  the  empire.  These  forces  had  taken  the 
opportunity  of  his  absence  to  revolt,  and  now  began  to 
affirm  that  the  whole  Roman  empire  was  in  their  power, 
and  that  its  principal  grandeur  was  owing  to  the  success  of 
their  arms ;  when  German'icus  returned,  therefore,  they 
unanimously  resolved  to  choose  him  emperor.  5.  This 
general  was  the  darling  of  the  soldiers,  and  almost  idolized, 
so  that  he  might,  with  very  little  difficulty,  have  raised  him- 
self to  the  highest  dignity  in  the  state  ;  but  his  duty  pre- 
vailed over  his  ambition  ;  he  rejected  their  offers  with  the 
utmost  indignation,  and  used  the  most  indefatigable  endeav- 
ours to  quell  the  sedition.  This  he  effected,  though  with 
extreme  hazard,  by  cutting  off  many  of  the  principal  revolt- 
ers,  and  then  by  leading  the  troops  against  the  Germans, 
who  were  considered  as  the  common  enemies  of  the  empire. 
6.  Tiberius  was  as  much  pleased  with  the  loyalty  of 
German'icus,  as  he  was  distressed  at  his  superior  popular- 
ity ;  his  success,  also,  immediately  after,  against  the  Ger- 
mans, still  more  excited  the  emperor's  envy  and  private 
disgust.  He  overthrew  the  enemy  in  several  battles,  sub- 
duing many  wild  and  extensive  countries.  7.  These  victo- 
ries, however,  only  served  to  inflame  the  emperor's  jealousy; 
and  every  virtue  in  the  general  now  became  a  new  cause  of 
offence.  This  dislike  began  to  appear  by  Tiberius's  making 
use  of  every  pretence  to  draw  German'icus  from  the  legions  ; 
but  he  was  obliged  to  postpone  his  purpose  on  account  of  8 
domestic  insurrection  made  in  Italy  by  one  Cle'mens,  whom 
he  put  to  death  by  a  private  execution  in  a  secret  apartment 
of  the  palace. 

*  He  began  his  reign,  however,  with  the  murder  of  Agrippa  Posthu-' 
cms,  the  grandson  of  Augustus. 


THE    EMPIRE.  271 

9.  Having  thus  got  rid  of  his  domestic  enemy,  he  turned 
his  thoughts  to  the  most  specious  means  of  bringing  home 
German'icus  from  the  legions  in  Germany.  He  began  by 
procuring  him  a  triumph  for  his  late  victories,  and  *hen 
writing  to  him  to  return  in  order  to  enjoy  those  honours 
which  the  senate  had  decreed  ;  adding,  that  he  had  reaped 
enough  of  glory  in  a  country  to  which  he  had  been  sent 
nine  times,  and  been  each  time  victorious  ;  concluding,  that 
so  great  a  number  of  triumphs  was  sufficient ;  and  the  most 
signal  vengeance  which  could  be  inflicted  on  this  turbulent 
people  was  to  permit  them  to  continue  their  intestine  divi- 
sions. 10.  German'icus  was  met  on  his  return,  many  miles 
from  the  city,  by  a  vast  multitude,  who  received  him  with 
marks  of  adoration  rather  than  respect.  The  gracefulness 
of  his  person  ;  his  triumphal  chariot,  in  which  were  carried 
his  five  children ;  and  the  recovered  standards  of  the  army 
of  Va'rus,  threw  the  people  into  a  phrenzy  of  joy  and  ad- 
miration.* 

11.  German'icus  was  now  appointed  to  a  new  dignity. 
He  departed  from  Rome  on  an  expedition  to  the  east,  car- 
rying with  him  his  wife  Agrippi'na,  and  his  children.  12. 
But  Tibe'rius,  to  restrain  his  power,  had  sent  Cne'ius  Pi'so 
governor  into  Syr'ia.  This  Pi'so  was  a  person  of  furious 
and  headstrong  temper,  and,  in  every  respect,  fit  to  execute 
those  fatal  purposes  for  which  he  was  designed.  13.  His 
instructions  were,  to  oppose  German'icus  upon  every  occa- 
sion, to  excite  hatred  against  him,  and  even  to  procure  his 
death  if  an  opportunity  should  offer.  He  accordingly  took 
every  opportunity  of  abusing  German'icus ;  and  taxed  him 
with  diminishing  the  Roman  glory,  by  his  peculiar  protec- 
tion of  the  Athe'nians.  14.  German'icus  disregarded  his 
invectives,  being  more  intent  on  executing  the  business  of 
his  commission,  than  on  counteracting  the  private  designs 
of  Pi'so.  15.  Piso,  however,  and  his  wife  Planci'na,  who 
is  recorded  as  a  woman  of  an  implacable  and  cruel  dispo- 
sition, continued  f»  defame  him.  German'icus  opposed 
only  patience  and  condescension  to  all  their  invectives,  and, 
with  that  gentleness  which  was  peculiar  to  him,  repaid  their 
resentments  by  courtesy.  1 6.  He  was  not  ignorant  of  their 
motives,  and  was  rather  willing  to  evade  than  oppose  their 

*  Varus  had  been  surprised  by  the  Germans,  defeated,  and  his  whole 
army  cut  to  pieces.  Augustus  was  so  grieved  at  this  disgrace  and  losn, 
that,  for  a  long  time,  he  wore  mourning,  and  frequently  was  heard  to 
cry  out,  in  the  agony  of  his  grief,  "  Restore  me  my  legions,  Varu*.** 


272  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

enmity.  He,  therefore,  took  a  voyage  Into  Egypt,  under 
pretence  of  viewing  the  celebrated  antiquities  of  that  coun- 
try;  but,  in  reality,  to  avoid  the  machinations  of  Pi'so,  and 
those  of  his  wife,  which  were  still  more  dangerous.  17. 
Upon  his  return  he  fell  sick,  and,  Mrhether  from  a  mind  pre- 
viously alarmed,  or  from  more  apparent  marks  of  treachery, 
he  sent  to  let  Pi'so  know,  that  he  broke  off  all  further  con- 
nections. Growing  daily  worse,  his  death  appeared  to  bt 
inevitable.  18.  Finding  his  end  approaching,  he  addressed 
his  friends,  who  stood  around  his  bed,  to  the  following  ef- 
fect: "  Had  my  death  been  natural,  I  might  have  reason  to 
complain  of  being  thus  snatched  away  from  all  the  endear- 
ments of  life,  at  so  early  an  age  ;  but  my  complaints  are 
aggravated,  in  falling  the  victim  of  Pi'so's  and  Planei'na's 
treachery.  Let  the  emperor,  therefore,  I  conjure  you,  know 
the  manner  of  my  death,  and  the  tortures  I  suffer.  Those 
who  loved  me  when  living — those  who  even  envied  my  for- 
tune— will  feel  some  regret,  when  they  hear  of  a  soldier, 
who  had  so  often  escaped  the  rage  of  the  enemy,  falling  a 
sacrifice  to  the  treachery  of  a  woman.  Plead  then  my  cause 
before  the  people — you  will  be  heard  with  pity — and  if  my 
murderers  should  pretend  to  have  acted  by  command,  they 
will  either  receive  no  credit  or  no  pardon."  19.  As  he 
spoke  these  words,  he  stretched  forth  his  hand,  which  his 
weeping  friends  tenderly  pressing,  most  earnestly  vowed 
that  they  would  lose  their  lives  rather  than  their  revenge. 
The  dying  prince,  then  turning  to  his  wife,  conjured  her,  by 
her  regard  to  his  memory,  and  by  all  the  bonds  of  nuptial 
love,  to  submit  to  the  necessity  of  the  times,  and  to  evade 
the  resentment  of  her  more  powerful  enemies  by  not  op- 
posing it.*  20.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  distress  of  the 
whole  empire,  upon  hearing  of  the  death  of  German'icus, 
and  the  people  of  Rome  seemed  to  set  no  bounds  to  it.  21. 
In  this  universal  confusion,  Pi'so  seemed  marked  for  de- 
struction. He  and  his  wife  stood  charged  with  the  death 
of  German'icus,  by  giving  him  a  slow  poison.  Indeed, 
even  the  emperor  himself,  with  his  mother  Liv'ia,  incurred 
a  share  of  the  general  suspicion.  22.  This  was  soon  after 
greatly  increased  by  the  arrival  of  Agrippi'na,  the  widow 
of  German'icus,  a  woman  of  invincible  courage,  and  in 

*  Germanicus  died  in  the  34th  year  of  his  age,  and  was  universally 
mourned  for,  not  only  by  the  Roman  people,  but  by  the  princes  in 
alliance  with  Rome,  and  even  by  the  proud  monarch  of  Parthia.  (Suet. 
1.  4.  c.  5.) 


THE    EMPIRE.  273 

high  esteem  for  her  virtue.  She  appeared  bearing  the  urn 
containing  the  ashes  of  her  husband,  and,  attended  by  all 
her  children,  went  to  the  tomb  of  Augustus.  23.  When  she 
approached  the  city,  she  was  met  by  the  senate  and  people 
of  Rome,  both  with  acclamations  and  expressions  of  sorrow. 
The  veteran  soldiers,  who  had  served  under  German'icus, 
gave  the  sincerest  testimonies  of  their  concern.  The  mul- 
titude, while  the  ashes  were  depositing,  regarded  the  cere- 
mony in  profound  silence ;  but  presently  broke  out  into 
loud  lamentations,  crying  out,  The  commonwealth  is  now 
no  more. 

24.  Tibe'rius  permitted  the  accusation  of  Pi'so,  though 
he  was  justly  supposed  to  be  merely  the  instrument  of  his 
own  vengeance.     This  general  was  accused  before  the  sen- 
ate of  the  death  of  German'icus,  and  of  other  crimes. 

25.  He  put  an  end  to  his  trial,  which  had  been  drawn 
out  to  a  great  length,  by  committing  suicide.*     His  wife 
Planci'na,  who  was  universally  believed  to  be  most  culpa- 
ble, escaped  punishment  by  the  interest  of  Liv'ia. 

26.  Tibe'rius,  having  now  no  object  of  jealousy  to  keep 
him  in  awe,  began  to  pull  off  the  mask,  and  appear  more 
in  his  natural  character  than  before.     27.  In  the  beginning 
of  his  cruelties,  he  took  into  his  confidence  Seja'nus,  a 
Roman  knight,  who  found  out  the  method  of  gaining  his 
affection  by  the  most  refined  degree  of  dissimulation,  and 
was  an  overmatch  for  his  master  in  his  own  arts.t    It  is  not 
well  known  whether  he  was  the  adviser  of  all  the  cruelties 
that  ensued ;  but  certain  it  is,  that  from  the  beginning  of 
his  ministry,  Tibe'rius  seemed  to  become  more  fatally  sus- 
picious. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  were  the  age  and  character  of  Tiberius  on  his  accession  1 

2.  What  first  showed  him  in  his  true  colours  ? 

*  He  was  found  in  the  morning  with  his  throat  cut,  and  his  sword 
lying  by  him ;  but  whether  this  was  done  by  his  own  hand,  or  by  the 
orders  of  Tiberius,  is  not  known.  (Tacitus.) 

•j-  Sejanus,  though  simply  a  Roman  knight,  was  descended  from  an 
illustrious  family,  and  was,  in  the  very  beginning  of  Tiberius's  reign, 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  command  of  the  prsetorian  guards.  By 
removing  these  from  their  usual  quarters  in  the  city,  and  uniting  them 
in  one  body  in  a  camp,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  that  power,  which  they 
afterwards  usurped,  of  disposing  of  the  empire  at  their  pleasure. 


274  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

3.  What  was  the  first  news  he  heard  ? 

4  Was  there  not  a  more  formidable  revolt? 

5.  Did  Germanicus  accept  this  dignity  ? 

6.  Did  Tiberius  properly  appreciate  this  conduct ! 

7.  Was  he  pleased  with  his  success  1 

8.  How  did  this  appear  ? 

9.  What  followed  this  execution? 

10.  How  was  Germanicus  received? 

11.  How  was  he  next  employed? 

12.  What  restraints  were  imposed  on  him? 

1 3.  What  were  Piso's  instructions,  and  how  did  he  execute  them  t 

14.  How  did  Germanicus  act  on  the  occasion  ? 

15.  Did  Piso  persevere  in  his  base  attempts  ? 

1 6.  Was  Germanicus  aware  of  their  design  ? 

17.  What  happened  on  his  return  ? 

18.  Repeat  his  speech  on  his  death-bed. 

19.  What  farther  passed  on  this  occasion! 

20.  Was  his  untimely  end  lamented  ? 

21.  Who  incurred  the  popular  hatred  on  this  occasion? 

22.  How  was  this  increased  ? 

23.  What  honours  were  paid  her? 

24.  Was  the  tyrant's  vile  agent  rewarded  for  his  services  ? 

25.  What  was  the  issue  ? 

26.  How  did  Tiberius  conduct  himself  after  this? 

27.  Who  was  his  prime  minister  ? 


SECTION  IV. 

1.  SEJA'NTJS  began  his  administration  by  using  all  bis 
address  to  persuade  Tiberius  to  retire  to  some  agreeable  re- 
treat, remote  from  Rome  ;  from  this  he  expected  many  ad- 
vantages, since  there  could  be  no  access  to  the  emperor  but 
through  him.  2.  The  emperor,  either  prevailed  upon  by 
his  persuasions,  or  pursuing  the  natural  turn  of  his  temper, 
left  Rome  and  went  into  Campa'nia,  under  pretence  of  de- 
dicating temples  to  Ju'piter  and  Augustus.  Growing  weary, 
however,  of  places  where  mankind  might  follow  him  with 
their  complaints  and  distresses,  he  withdrew  himself  into 
the  delightful  island  of  Ca'preae  ;  and  buried  in  this  retreat, 
gave  himself  up  to  abandoned  pleasures,  regardless  of  the 
miseries  of  his  subjects.  3.  From  this  time  he  became 
more  cruel,  and  Seja'nus  increased  his  distrusts.  Secret 
spies  and  informers  were  placed  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  who 
converted  the  most  harmless  actions  into  subjects  of  offence. 
4.  In  consequence  of  this,  Ne'ro  and  Dru'sus,  the  children 
of  German'icus,  were  declared  enemies  to  the  state,  and 


THE    EMPIRE.  275 

afterwards  starved  to  death  in  prison  ;  while  Agrippi'na, 
their  mother,  was  sent  into  banishment.  Sabi'nus,  Asm'ius, 
Gal'lus,  and  Syria'cus,  were,  upon  slight  pretences,  con- 
demned and  executed.  5.  In  this  manner  Seja'nus  pro- 
ceeded, removing  all  who  stood  between  him  and  the  empire ; 
and  every  day  increasing  his  confidence  with  Tibe'rius,  and 
his  power  with  the  senate.  The  number  of  his  statues  ex- 
ceed-ed  even  those  of  the  emperor ;  people  swore  by  his 
fortune,  in  the  same  manner  as  they  would  have  done  had 
he  been  upon  the  throne ;  and  he  was  more  dreaded  than 
even  the  tyrant  who  actually  enjoyed  the  empire.  6.  But 
the  rapidity  of  his  rise  seemed  only  preparatory  to  the 
greatness  of  his  downfall.  All  we  know  of  his  first  dis- 
grace with  the  emperor  is,  that  Sati'rus  Secun'dus  was  the 
man  who  had  the  boldness  to  accuse  him  of  treason  ;  and 
Anto'nia,  the  mother  of  German'icus,  seconded  the  accusa- 
tion. 7.  The  senate,  who  had  long  been  jealous  of  his 
power,  and  dreaded  his  cruelty,  immediately  took  this  op- 
portunity of  going  beyond  the  orders  of  Tibe'rius  ;  instead 
of  sentencing  him  to  imprisonment,  they  directed  his  exe- 
cution.* 8.  Whilst  he  was  conducting  to  his  fate,  the  peo- 
ple loaded  him  with  insult  and  execration ;  pursued  him 
with  sarcastic  reproaches  ;  and  threw  down  his  statues.  He 
himself  was  strangled  by  the  executioner. 

9.  His  death  only  lighted  up  the  emperor's  rage  for  far- 
ther executions.  Planci'na,  the  wife  of  Pi'so,  and  others, 
were  put  to  death  for  being  attached  to  Seja'nus.  He  began 
to  grow  weary  of  single  executions,  and  gave  orders  that 
all  the  accused  should  be  put  to  death  together,  without  fur- 
ther examination.  The  whole  city  was,  in  consequence, 
filled  with  slaughter  and  mourning.  10.  When  one  Car- 
nu'lius  killed  himself,  to  avoid  the  torture,  "  Ah  !"  cried 
Tibe'rius,  "  how  has  that  man  been  able  to  escape  me  !" 
When  a  prisoner  had  earnestly  entreated  that  he  would  not 
defer  his  death :  "  Know,"  said  the  tyrant,  "  I  am  not  suf- 
ficiently your  friend  to  shorten  your  torments." 

*  To  such  a  pitch  of  meanness  were  the  Roman  senators  arrived,  that 
when  the  emperor's  letu>r  arrived,  the  senators,  thinking  it  contained 
orders  for  bestowing  on  Sejanus  the  tribunltial  power,  crowded  around 
him,  each  striving  to  be  foremost  in  congratulating  him  on  his  new  dig- 
nity; but  they  no  sooner  learned  the  real  contents  of  the  fatal  letter 
than  all  forsook  him;  even  those  who  sat  near  him  removed  to  another 
part  of  the  house,  lest  they  should  be  accounted  his  friends.  (Dio.)  The 
populace  likewise  broke  in  pieces  those  very  statues  which,  a  few  hour* 
before,  they  had  adored. 


276  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

11.  In  this  manner  he  lived,  odious  to  the  world,  inJ 
troublesome  to  himself;  an  enemy  to  the  lives  of  others,  a 
tormentor  of  his  own.*  At  length,  in  the  22d  year  of  his 
reign,  he  began  to  feel  the  approaches  of  dissolution,  and 
his  appetite  totally  forsook  him.  12.  He  now,  therefore, 
found  it  was  time  to  think  of  a  successor,  and  fixed  upon 
Calig'ula  :t  willing,  perhaps,  by  the  enormity  of  Calig'ula's 
conduct,  with  which  he  was  well  acquainted,  to  lessen  the 
obloquy  of  his  own. 

13.  Still,  however,  he  seemed  desirous  to  avoid  his  end  ; 
and  strove,  by  change  of  place,  to  cut  off  the  inquietude  of 
his  own  reflections.  He  left  his  favourite  island,  and  went 
upon  the  continent;  and  at  last,  fixed  at  the  promontory  of 
Mise'num.J  There  he  fell  into  faintings,  which  all  believed 
to  be  fatal.  14.  Calig'ula  supposing  him  actually  dead, 
caused  himself  to  be  acknowledged  by  the  Praetorian  sol- 
diers^ and  went  forth  from  the  emperor's  apartment  amidst 
the  applauses  of  the  multitude ;  when,  all  of  a  sudden,  he  was 
informed  that  the  emperor  was  likely  to  recover.  15.  This 
unexpected  account  filled  the  whole  court  with  terror  and 
alarm ;  every  one  who  had  before  been  earnestly  testifying 
his  joy,  now  reassumed  his  pretended  sorrow,  and  forsook 
the  new  emperor,  through  a  feigned  solicitude  for  the  fate  of 
the  old.  16.  Calig'ula  seemed  thunderstruck;  he  preserved 
a  gloomy  silence,  expecting  nothing  but  death,  instead  of  the 
empire  at  which  he  aspired.  17.  Marco,  however,  who  was 
hardened  in  crimes,  ordered  that  the  dying  emperor  should 
be  despatched,  by  smothering  him  with  pillows  ;  or,  as 
some  will  have  it,  by  poison.  Thus  died  Tibe'rius  in  the 

*  It  has  been  well  said  of  Tiberius,  "  This  great  prince — this  sovereign 
of  Rome — with  his  numerous  armies,  his  prsetorian  bands,  and  his  un- 
limited power,  was  in  hourly  fear  of  secret  assassins,  incessantly  racked 
by  his  own  apprehensions ;  with  all  the  eclat  of  empire,  the  most  miser- 
able being  in  his  dominions.  His  power,  indeed,  was  unlimited,  but  so 
•was  his  misery ;  the  more  he  made  others  suffer,  the  faster  he  multi- 
plied his  own  torments.  Such  was  his  situation  and  life,  and  such  are 
the  natural  consequences  of  the  abuse  of  power." 

f  He  was  so  named  from  caliga,  a  sort  of  military  boot  which  he 
usually  wore. 

t  A  promontory,  port,  and  town  in  Italy,  near  Naples. 

§  The  Praetorian  bands  were  instituted  by  Augustus,  to  guard  his 
person,  and  maintain  his  authority.  Under  bold  and  warlike  emperors, 
they  were  kept  in  tolerable  subjection :  but  when  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment were  held  by  feeble  hands,  they  became  the  disturbers,  instead  of 
preservers,  of  the  public  peace ;  and,  at  length,  deposed  and  set  up  em- 
perors at  their  pleasure. 


THE  EMPIRE.  277 

seventy-eighth  year  of  his  age,  after  reigning    C  u-  c-  780. 
twenty-two  years.  ^  A.  D.  37. 

18.  It  was  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  this  emperor's  reign 
that  Christ,  (after  having  spent  two  years  in  the  public  min- 
istry, instructing  the  multitude  in  the  way  of  salvation,)  was 
crucified;  as  if  the  universal  depravity  ol  mankind  wanted 
no  less  a  sacrifice  than  this  to  reclaim  them.  Pi'late  sent  to 
Tibe'rius  an  account  of  Christ's  passion,  resurrection,  and 
miracles,  and  the  emperor  made  a  report  of  the  whole  to  the 
senate,  desiring  that  Christ  might  be  accounted  a  god  by  the 
Romans.  19.  But  the  senate,  displeased  that  the  proposal 
had  not  come  first  from  themselves,  refused  to  allow  of  his 
apotheosis ;  alleging  an  ancient  law,  which  gave  them  the 
superintendence  in  all  matters  of  religion.  They  even  went 
so  far  as  to  command,  by  an  edict,  that  all  Christians  should 
leave  the  city  ;  but  Tibe'rius,  by  another  edict,  threatened 
death  to  such  as  should  accuse  them  ;  by  which  means  they 
continued  unmolested  during  the  rest  of  his  reign. 

20.  The  vices  of  Calig'ula  were  concealed  under  the  ap- 
pearance of  virtue  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign.     In  less 
than  eight  months,  however,  every  trace  of  moderation  and 
clemency  vanished ;    while  furious   passions,   unexampled 
avarice,  and  capricious  cruelty,  reigned  uncontrolled;  and 
pride,  impiety,  lust,  and  avarice,  appeared  in  all  their  native 
deformity. 

21.  Calig'ula's  pride"  first  appeared  in  his  assuming  to 
himself  the  title  of  ruler ;  which  was  usually  granted  only 
to  kings.    He  would  also  have  taken  the  crown  and  diadem, 
had  he  not  been  advised,  that  he  was  already  superior  to  all 
the  monarchs  of  the  world.     22.  Not  long  after  he  assumed 
divine  honours,  and  gave  himself  the  names  of  such  divini- 
ties as  he  thought  most  agreeable  to  his  nature.     For  this 
purpose  he  caused  the  heads  of  the  statues  of  Jupiter,  and 
some  other  gods,  to  be  struck  off,  and  his  own  to  be  put  in 
their  places.     He  frequently  seated  himself  between  Castor 
and  Pollux,  and  ordered  that  all  who  came  to  this  temple  to 
worship  should  pay  their  adorations  only  to  himself.  23.  How- 
ever, such  was  the  extravagant  inconsistency  of  this  unac- 
countable idiot,  that  he  changed  his  divinity  as  often  as  he 
changed  his  clothes  ;   being  at  one  time  a  male  deity,  at 
another  a  female  ;  sometimes  Jupiter  or  Mars  ;  and  not  un- 
frequently  Venus  or  Diana.     24.  He  even  built  and  dedi- 
cated a  temple  to  his  own  divinity,  in  which  his  statue  of 
gold  was  every  day  dressed  in  robes  similar  to  those  which 

2  A 


278  Hisronv  OF  ROME. 

he  himself  wore,  and  worshipped  by  crowds  of  adorers 
His  priests  were  numerous  ;  the  sacrifices  made  to  him 
were  of  the  most  exquisite  delicacies  that  could  he  procured  ; 
and  the  dignity  of  the  priesthood  was  sought  by  the  most 
opulent  men  of  the  city.  However,  he  admitted  his  wife 
and  his  horse  to  that  honour ;  and  to  give  a  finishing  stroke 
to  his  absurdities,  became  a  priest  to  himself.  25.  His 
method  of  assuming  the  manners  of  a  deity  was  not  less  ri- 
diculous ;  he  often  went  out  at  full  moon,  and  courted  it  in 
the  style  of  a  lover.  He  employed  many  inventions  to  imi- 
tate thunder,  and  would  frequently  defy  Jupiter,  crying  out 
with  a  speech  of  Homer,  "  Do  you  conquer  me,  or  I  will 
conquer  you."  He  frequently  pretended  to  converse  in 
whispers  with  the  statue  of  Jupiter,  and  usually  seemed 
angry  at  its  replies,  threatening  to  send  it  back  into  Greece, 
whence  it  came.  Sometimes,  however,  he  would  assume  a 
better  temper,  and  seem  contented  that  Jupiter  and  he  should 
dwell  together  in  amity. 

26.  Of  all  his  vices,  prodigality  was  the  most  remarkable, 
and  that  which  in  some  measure  gave  rise  to  the  rest.    The 
luxuries  of  former  emperors  were    simplicity  itself  when 
compared  to  those  which  he  practised.     He  contrived  new 
ways  of  bathing,  when  the  richest  oils  and  most  precious 
perfumes  were  lavished  with  the  utmost  profusion.     His 
luxuries  of  the  table  were  of  immense  value,  and  even  jew- 
els, as  we  are  told,  were  dissolved  in  his  sauces.     He  some- 
times had  services  of  pure  gold  presented  before  his  guests, 
instead  of  meat,  observing  that  a  man  should  be  an  econo- 
mist or  an  emperor. 

27.  The  manner  in  which  he  maintained  his  horse  will 
give  some  idea  of  his  domestic  extravagance.     He  built  a 
stable  of  marble,  and  a  manger  of  ivory ;  and  whenever  the 
animal,  which  he  called  Incita'tus,  was  to  run  in  the  race,  he 
placed  sentinels  near  its  stable,  the  night  preceding,  to  pre- 
vent its  slumbers  from  being  broken.* 

•  Some  still  more  extraordinary  accounts  are  given  of  this  horse  :  il 
is  said  that  he  appointed  it  a  house,  furniture,  and  kitchen,  in  order  to 
treat  all  its  visitors  with  proper  respect.  Sometimes  he  invited  Incita'- 
tus to  his  own  table,  and  presented  it  with  gilt  oats,  and  wine  in  a  gol- 
den cup.  He  would  often  swear,  "by  the  safety  of  his  horse  1"  and  it 
is  even  said  that  it  was  his  intention  to  have  appointed  it  to  the  consul- 
ship, had  not  his  death  prevented  it 


THE    EMPIRE.  '270 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  first  measure  of  Stjanus? 

2.  Did  the  emperor  yield  to  his  persuasions  ? 

3.  What  consequences  ensued  from  this  measure1? 

4.  Who  were  the  first  sufferers  ? 

6.  Did  Sejanus  increase  his  influence  1 

6.  Was  this  elevation  permanent  1 

7.  To  what  punishment  was  he  condemned  ? 

8.  What  occurred  at  his  execution  7 

9.  Was  this  the  only  victim  to  the  cruelty  of  Tiberius  ? 

10.  How  did  Tiberius  aggravate  his  cruelties? 

11.  Did  these  cruelties  long  continue? 

12.  How  did  he  act  on  this? 

13.  Was  he  resigned  to  his  fate? 

14.  What  followed  on  this  ? 

15.  How  was  this  news  received  ? 

16.  Did  Caligula  boldly  meet  the  consequences? 

17.  How  was  this  averted  ? 

18.  What  highly  remarkable  event  happened  in  this  reign? 

1 9.  Was  his  desire  gratified  ? 

20.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Caligula  on  this  occasion? 

2 1 .  By  what  acts  did  he  display  his  pride  ? 

22.  Did  his  arrogance  carry  him  farther  than  this? 

23.  Under  what  name  did  he  assume  divine  honours? 

24.  Of  what  farther  absurdities  was  he  guilty  ? 

25.  Relate  other  follies  of  his  ? 

26.  What  was  his  principal  vice  ? 

27.  Give  an  instance  of  his  domestic  extravagance  ? 


SECTION  V. 

1.  THE  impiety,  however,  of  Calig'ula  was  but  subordi- 
nate to  his  cruelties.  He  slew  many  of  the  senate,  and  after- 
wards cited  them  to  appear.  He  cast  great  numbers  of  old 
and  infirm  men  to  the  wild  beasts,  to  free  the  state  from 
such  unserviceable  citizens.  He  usually  fed  his  wild  beasts 
•with  the  bodies  of  those  wretches  whom  he  condemned ; 
and  every  tenth  day  sent  off  numbers  of  them  to  be  thus 
devoured,  which  he  jocosely  called  clearing  his  accounts. 
One  of  those  who  was  thus  exposed,  crying  out  that  he  was 
innocent,*  Calig'ula  ordered  him  to  be  taken  up,  his  tongue 

*  One  day  on  visiting  the  amphitheatre,  fmdinc;  there  were  no  criminals 
condemned  to  fight  with  wild  beasts,  he  ordered  numbers  of  the  specta- 
tors to  be  thrown  to  them,  previously  causing  their  tongues  to  be  cut  out, 
.hat  they  might  not,  by  their  cries,  disturb  his  inhuman  diversions. 


280  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

to  be  cut  out,  and  then  thrown  into  the  amphitheatre  as  be 
fore.  2.  He  took  delight  in  killing  men  with  slow  tortures, 
that,  as  he  expressed  it,  they  might  feel  themselves  dying, 
being  always  present  at  such  executions  himself,  directing 
the  duration  of  the  punishment,  and  mitigating  the  tortures 
merely  to  prolong  them.  3.  In  fact,  he  valued  himself  for 
no  quality  more  than  his  unrelenting  temper,  and  inflexible 
severity,  when  he  presided  at  an  execution.  4.  Upon  one 
occasion,  being  incensed  with  the  citizens,  he  wished  that 
the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck,  that  he  might  dispatch 
them  at  one  blow. 

5.  Such  insupportable  and  capricious  cruelties  produced 
many  secret  conspiracies  against  him  ;  but  they  were  for 
a  while  deferred  upon  account  of  his  intended  expedition 
TJ.  c.  793.  >  against  the  Germans  and  Britons.  6.  For  this 
A.  D.  41.  5  purpose  he  caused  numerous  levies  to  be  made, 
and  talked  with  so  much  resolution,  that  it  was  universally 
believed  he  would  conquer  all  before  him.  7.  His  march 
perfectly  indicated  the  inequality  of  his  temper;  sometimes 
it  was  so  rapid  that  the  cohorts  were  obliged  to  leave  their 
standards  behind  them  ;  at  other  times  it  was  so  slow,  that 
it  more  resembled  a  pompous  procession  than  a  military  ex- 
pedition. 8.  In  this  disposition  he  would  cause  himself  to 
be  carried  on  a  litter,  on  eight  men's  shoulders,  and  ordered 
all  the  neighbouring  cities  to  have  their  streets  well  swept 
and  watered,  that  he  might  not  be  annoyed  with  dust.  9. 
•  However,  all  these  mighty  preparations  ended  in  nothing. 
Instead  of  conquering  Britain,  he  merely  gave  refuge  to  one 
of  its  banished  princes  ;  and  this  he  described,  in  his  letter 
to  the  senate,  as  taking  possession  of  the  whole  island. 
10.  Instead  of  conquering  Germany, -he  only  led  his  army 
to  the  seashore  in  Gaul :  there,  disposing  his  engines  and 
warlike  machines  with  great  solemnity,  and  drawing  up  his 
men  in  order  of  battle,  he  went  on  board  his  galley,  with 
which  coasting  along,  he  commanded  his  trumpets  to  sound, 
and  the  signal  to  be  given  as  if  for  an  engagement.  11.  His 
men,  who  had  previous  orders,  immediately  fell  to  gathering 
*he  shells  that  lay  upon  the  shore  into  their  helmets,  as  their 
spoils  of  the  conquered  ocean,  worthy  of  the  palace  and  the 
capitol.  12.  After  this  doughty  expedition,  calling  his  army 
together,  like  a  general  after  victory,  he  harangued  them  in 
a  pompous  manner,  and  highly  extolled  their  achievements ; 
then,  distributing  money  among  them,  and  congratulating 
them  upon  their  riches,  he  dismissed  them,  with  orders  to 


THE    EMPIRE.  281 

be  joyful :  and,  that  such  exploits  should  not  pass  without 
a  memorial,  he  ordered  a  lofty  tower  to  be  erected  by  the 
seaside.* 

13.  Cassius  Cher'ea,  a  tribune  of  the  Praetorian  bands, 
was  the  person  who  at  last  freed  the  world  from  this  tyrant. 
Besides  the  motives  which  he  had  in  common  with  other 
men,  he  had  received  repeated  insults  from  Calig'ula,  who 
took  all  occasions  of  turning  him  into   ridicule,  and   im 
peaching  him  with  cowardice,  merely  because  he  happened 
to  have  an  effeminate  voice.     Whenever  Cher'ea  came  to 
demand  the  watch-word   from  the   emperor,   according  to 
custom,  he  always  gave  him  either  Venus,  Adonis,  or  some 
such,  implying  softness  and  effeminacy. 

14.  Cher'ea  secretly  imparted  his  design  to  several  sena- 
tors and  knights,  whom  he  knew  to  have  received  personal 
injuries   from   Calig'ula.     While    these   were    deliberating 
upon  the  most  certain  and  speedy  method  of  destroying  the 
tyrant,  an  unexpected  incident  gave  new  strength  to  the 
conspiracy.     15.  Pempe'dius,  a  senator  of  distinction,  being 
accused  before  the  emperor  of  having  spoken  of  him  with 
disrespect,  the  informer  cited  one  Quintil'ia,  an  actress,  to 
confirm  the  accusation.     16.  Quintil'ia,  however,  was  pos- 
sessed of  a  degree  of  fortitude  not  frequently  found  even 
in  the  other  sex.     She  denied  the  fact  with  obstinacy ;  and, 
being  put  to  the  torture,  bore  the  severest  tortures  of  the 
rack  with  unshaken  constancy.     17.  Indeed,  so  remarkable 
was  her  resolution,  that  though  acquainted  with  all  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  conspiracy,  and  although  Cher'ea  was  the 
person  appointed  to  preside  at  her  torture,  she   revralrd 
nothing ;  on  the  contrary,  when  she  was  led  to  the  rack, 
she  trod  upon  the  toe  of  one  of  the  conspirators,  intimating 
at  once  her  knowledge  of  their  conspiracy,  and  her  resolu- 
tion not  to  divulge  it.     18.  Thus  she  suffered,  until  all  her 
limbs  were  dislocated ;  and,  in  that  deplorable  state,  was 
presented  to  the  emperor,  who  ordered  her  a  gratuity  for 
what  she  had  endured. 

19.  Cher'ea  could  no  longer  contain  his  indignation,  at 
being  thus  made  the  instrument  of  a  tyrant's  cruelty.  After 
several  deliberations  of  the  conspirators,  it  was  at  last  re- 
solved to  attack  him  during  the  Palatine  games,  which 

*  It  is  said  that  the  tower  which  stands  at  the  entry  of  the  port  of 
Cologne,  culled  La  tour  d'ordre,  is  that  built  by  Calig'ula  on  this  oc- 
casion. 

2  A  2 


282  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

lasted  four  days,*  and  to  strike  the  blow  when  his  guards 
should  not  have  the  opportunity  to  defend  him.  20.  The 
first  three  days  of  the  games  passed.  Cher'ea  began  to  ap- 
prehend that  deferring  the  completion  of  the  conspiracy 
might  be  the  means  of  divulging  it ;  he  even  dreaded  that 
the  honour  of  killing  the  tyrant  might  fall  to  the  lot  of  some 
other  person  bolder  than  himself.  At  last  he  resolved  to 
defer  the  execution  of  his  plot  only  to  the  day  following, 
when  Calig'ula  should  pass  through  a  private  gallery,  to 
some  baths  near  the  palace. 

21.  The  last  day  of  the  games  was  more  splendid  than 
the  rest;  and  Calig'ula  seemed  more  sprightly  and  conde- 
scending than  usual.  He  enjoyed  the  amusement  of  seeing 
the  people  scramble  for  the  fruits  and  other  rarities  by  his 
order  thrown  among  them,  being  no  way  apprehensive  of 
the  plot  formed  for  his  destruction.  22.  In  the  mean  time 
the  conspiracy  began  to  transpire  :  and,  had  he  any  friends 
remaining,  it  could  not  have  failed  of  being  discovered.  A 
senator  who  was  present,  asking  one  of  his  acquaintance  if 
he  had  heard  any  thing  new,  and  the  other  replying  in  the 
negative,  said  "you  must  know,  that  this  day  will  be  repre- 
sented the  death  of  a  tyrant."  The  other  immediately  un- 
derstood him,  but  desired  him  to  be  cautious.  23.  The 
conspirators  waited  many  hours  with  extreme  anxiety  ;  and 
Calig'ula  seemed  resolved  to  spend  the  whole  day  without 
any  refreshment.  So  unexpected  a  delay  exasperated 
Cher'ea ;  and,  had  he  not  been  restrained,  he  would  sud- 
denly have  perpetrated  his  design  in  the  midst  of  all  the  peo- 
ple. 24.  At  that  instant,  while  he  was  hesitating,  Aspore'- 
nus,t  one  of  the  conspirators,  persuaded  Calig'ula  to  go  to 
the  bath,  and  take  some  slight  refreshment,  that  he  might 
the  better  enjoy  the  rest  of  the  entertainment.  25.  The 
emperor,  rising  up,  the  conspirators  used  every  precaution 
to  keep  off  the  throng,  and  to  surround  him  themselves, 
under  pretence  of  great  assiduity.  Upon  his  entering  a  little 
vaulted  gallery  that  led  to  the  bath,  Cher'ea  struck  him  to 
the  ground}  with  his  dagger,  crying  out,  "  Tyrant,  think  upon 

*  Palatine  games  were  so  called  from  their  being  celebrated  on  the 
Palatine  Hill,  which  was  the  most  considerable  of  the  seven  hills  on 
which  Rome  was  built.  This  was  the  first  hill  occupied  by  Rom'uhis, 
and  where  he  fixed  his  residence,  and  kept  his  court;  as  also  did  Tul'- 
lus,  Hostil'ius,  Augus'tus,  and  all  the  succeeding  emperors ;  and  hence 
;t  is  that  the  residence  of  princes  is  called  Palatium  or  Palace. 

•j-  He  is,  by  some  called  Am'pronus. 


THE    EMPIRE.  283 

this."  The  other  conspirators  closed  in  upon  him  ;  and 
while  the  emperor  was  resisting,  and  crying  out  that  ne  was 
not  yet  dead,  they  dispatched  him  with  thirty  wounds. 

26.  Such  was  the  merited  death  of  Calig'ula,  in  the  29th 
year  of  his  age,  after  a  short  reign  of  not  four  years.  His 
character  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words  of  Sen'eca ; 
namely,  "  Nature  seemed  to  have  brought  him  forth,  to  show 
what  mischief  could  be  effected  by  the  greatest  vices  support- 
ed by  the  greatest  authority." 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Of  what  enormities  was  Caligula  guilty  1 

2.  How  did  he  heighten  his  cruelties ? 

3.  On  what  did  he  chiefly  value  himself? 

4.  What  monstrous  wish  did  he  express  ? 

5.  What  was  the  consequence  of  such  atrocities  ? 

6.  What  preparations  did  he  make  1 

7.  How  did  his  disposition  display  itself  on  this  occasion  1 

8.  How  did  he  sometimes  travel  ? 

9.  What  exploits  did  he  perform  ? 

10.  Did  he  not  make  a  show  of  some  great  enterprise  T 

11.  How  did  it  end? 

12.  Of  what  farther  follies  was  he  guilty  ? 

13.  By  whom  was  he  assassinated,  and  by  what  provocations  was  nil 

fate  hastened? 

14.  Were  others  made  privy  to  the  design? 

15.  Relate  this  incident. 

16.  Did  Quintilia  confirm  the  accusation? 

17.  What  rendered  this  resolution  more  remarkable? 

18.  What  was  the  result  ? 

19.  Was  the  crisis  much  longer  deferred? 

20.  Was  this  resolution  put  in  practice  ? 

21.  Was  Caligula  at  all  apprehensive  of  what  was  in  agitation? 

22.  Was  the  secret,  inviolably  kept  ? 

23.  How  was  the  design  nearly  frustrated? 

24.  What  induced  Caligula  to  alter  his  intention? 

25.  Relate  the  manner  of  his  death. 

26.  Repeat  the  summary  of  his  character  as  given  by  Seneca. 


SECTION  VI. 
u.  c.  794.— A;  D.  42. 


1.  As  soon  as  the  death  of  Calig'ula  was  made  public  it 
produced  the  greatest  confusion.  The  conspirators,  who 
only  aimed  at  destroying  a  tyrant,  without  attending  to  the 


284  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

appointment  of  a  successor,  had  all  sought  safety  by  retiring 
to  private  places.  2.  Some  soldiers  happening  to  wander 
about  the  palace,  discovered  Clau'dius,  Calig'ula's  uncle, 
lurking  in  a  secret  place  where  he  had  hid  himself.  Of  this 
person,  who  had  hitherto  been  despised  for  his  imbecility,  they 
resolved  to  make  an  emperor  :  and  accordingly  they  carried 
him  upon  their  shoulders  to  the  camp,  where  they  proclaim- 
ed him  at  a  time  when  he  expected  nothing  but  death. 

3.  Clau'dius  was  now  fifty  years  old.     The  complicated 
diseases  of  his  infancy  had,  in  some  measure,  affected  all  the 
faculties  of  his  mind  as  well  as  body,  and  he  seemed,  both 
in  public  and  domestic  life,  incapable  of  conducting  himself j 
with  propriety.* 

4.  The  commencement  of  his  reign,  however,  as  had  been 
the  case  with  all  the  bad  emperors,  gave  the  most  promising 
hopes.    It  began  by  an  act  of  oblivion  for  all  former  words  and 
actions,  and  by  disannulling  all  the  cruel  edicts  of  Calig'ula. 
5.  He  showed  himself  more  moderate  than  his  predecessors 
with  regard  to  titles  and  honours.     He  forbade  all  persons, 
under  severe  penalties,  to  sacrifice  to  him,  as  they  had  done 
to  Calig'ula.     He  was  assiduous  in  hearing  and  examining 
complaints ;  and  frequently  administered  j  ustice  in  person 
with  great  mildness.     To  his  solicitude  for  the  internal  ad- 
vantages of  the  state,  he  added  that  of  a  watchful  guardian- 
ship over   the  provinces.     He  restored  Jude'a  to  Her'od 
Agrip'pa,t  which  Calig'ula  had  taken  from  Her'od  Antipas, 
his  uncle,  the  man  who  had  put  John  the  Baptist  to  death, 
and  who  was  banished  by  order  of  the  present  emperor.f 

I    6.  He  even  undertook  to  gratify  the  people  by  foreign 

*  His  mother  Anto'nia,  used  to  call  him  a  human  monster;  and  his 
nephew,  Calig'ula,  when  he  had  butchered  many  of  his  kindred,  saved 
him  merely  for  a  laughing-stock.  The  kindest  word  Agustus  gave  him 
was  that  of  Misel'lus,  (poor  wretch.)  This  example  was  followed  by 
others.  If  he  happened  to  come  to  table  when  the  guests  had  taken  their 
places,  no  one  showed  him  the  least  civility ;  and  when  he  slept,  as  he 
sometimes  did,  after  meals,  they  would  divert  themselves  by  throwing 
the  stones  of  fruit  at  him,  or  by  wakening  him  with  a  blow  of  a  rod  or 
whip. 

f  Her'od  Agrip'pa  was  the  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great ;  who,  at  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour,  caused  all  the  infants  of  Bethlehem  to  be  massacred, 
in  hopes  that  he  would  fall  in  the  number.  Her'od  Agrip'pa  to  please 
the  Jews,  also  persecuted  the  Christians ;  and  put  to  death  St.  James  the 
Great. 

$  He  put  to  death  Chcr'ea  and  some  others  of  the  murderers  of  his 
nephew. 


THE    EMPIRE. 


285 


*v  A 


Triumph  of  CUndiui. 

The  Britons,  who  had  for  nearly  a  hundred  years 
been  left  in  quiet  possession  of  their  own  island,  began  to 
seek  trie  mediation  of  Rome,  to  quell  their  intestine  commo- 
tions. 7.  The  principal  man  who  desired  to  subject  his 
native  country  to  the  Roman  dominion,  was  one  Ber'icus, 
who  persuaded  the  emperor  to  make  a  descent  upon  the 
island,  magnifying  the  advantages  that  would  attend  the  con- 
quest of  it.  8.  In  pursuance  of  his  advice,  therefore,  Plau'- 
tius,  the  praetor,  was  ordered  to  go  into  Gaul,  and  make 
preparations  for  this  great  expedition.  At  first,  indeed,  his 
soldiers  seemed  backward  to  embark,  declaring  that  they 
were  unwilling  to  make  war  beyond  the  limits  of  the  world; 
for  so  they  judged  Britain  to  be.  However,  they  were  at 
last  persuaded  to  go,  and  the  Britons  were  several  times 
overthrown. 

9.  These  successes  soon  after  induced  Claud'ius  to  go  in- 
to Britain  in  peiMm,  under  pretence  that  the  natives  C  A-  D- 
were  still  seditious,  and  had  not  delivered  up  some  ^  46. 
Roman  fugitives,  who  had  taken  shelter  among  them. 
10.  However,  this  exhibition  seemed  rather  calculated  for 
show  than  service :  the  time  he  continued  in  Britain,  which 
was  in  all  but  sixteen  days,  was  more  taken  up  in  receiving 
homage  than  extending  his  conquests.  11.  Great  rejoicings 
were  made  upon  his  return  to  Rome :  the  senate  decreed 
him  a  splendid  triumph;  triumphal  arches  were  erected  to 
I  is  honour,  and  annual  games  instituted  to  commemorate 
his  victories.  12.  In  the  mean  time  the  war  was  vigorously 
prosecuted  by  Plau'tius,  and  his  lieutenant  Vespasian,  who 


286  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

• 

according  to  Sueto'nius,  fought  thirty  battles,  and  reduced  a 
part  of  the  island  into  the  form  of  a  Roman  pro-  C  A.  D 
vince.  13.  However,  this  war  broke  out  afresh  (51. 
under  the  government  of  Osto'rius,  who  succeeded  Plau' 
tius.  The  Britons,  either  despising  him  for  want  of  expe- 
rience, or  hoping  to  gain  advantages  over  a  person  newly 
come  to  command,  rose  up  in  arms,  and  disclaimed  the  Ro- 
man power.  14.  The  Ice'ni,  who  inhabited  Suffolk,  Nor- 
folk, Cambridge,  and  Huntingdonshire;  the  Can'gi,  in  Wilt- 
shire and  Somersetshire  ;  and  the  Brigan'tes,  in  Yorkshire, 
&c.  made  a  powerful  resistance,  though  they  were  at  length 
overcome  ;  but  the  Silu'res,  or  inhabitants  of  South  Wales, 
under  their  king  Carac'tacus,  were  the  most  formidable  op- 
ponents the  Roman  generals  had  ever  yet  encountered. 
15.  This  brave  barbarian  not  only  made  a  gallant  defence, 
but  often  claimed  a  doubtful  victory.  He,  with  great  con- 
duct, removed  the  seat  of  war  into  the  most  inaccessible 
parts  of  the  country,  and  for  nine  years  kept  the  Romans  in 
continued  alarm. 

16.  Upon  the  approach  of  Osto'rius,  however,  Carac'ta- 
cus, finding  himself  obliged  to  come  to  a  decisive  engage- 
ment, addressed  his  countrymen  with  calm  resolution,  tell- 
ing them  that  this  battle  would  either  establish  their  liberty, 
or  confirm  their  servitude  ;  that  they  ought  to  remember  the 
bravery  of  their  ancestors,  by  whose  valour  they  were  deli- 
vered from  taxes  and  tribute  ;  and  that  this  was  the  time  to 
show  themselves  equal  to  their  progenitors.  17.  But  no- 
thing that  undisciplined  valour  could  perform  availed  against 
the  conduct  of  the  Roman  legions.  After  an  obstinate  fight, 
the  Britons  were  entirely  routed  :  the  wife  and  daughter  of 
Carac'tacus  were  taken  prisoners ;  and  he  himself,  seeking 
refuge  from  Cartisman'dua,  queen  of  the  Brigan'tes,  was 
treacherously  delivered  up  to  the  conquerors.  18.  When 
he  was  brought  to  Rome,  nothing  could  exceed  the  curiosity 
of  the  people  to  behold  a  man  who  had,  for  so  many  years, 
braved  the  power  of  the  empire.  Carac'tacus  testified  no 
marks  of  base  dejection.  When  he  was  led  through  the 
streets,  and  observed  the  splendor  of  every  object  around 
him — "  Aias  !"  cried  he,  "  how  is  it  possible  that  people 
possessed  of  such  magnificence  at  home,  could  think  of  en- 
vying Carac'tacus  a  humble  cottagt?  in  Britain  !"  19.  When 
he  was  brought  before  the  emperor,  while  the  other  prison- 
ers sued  for  pity  with  the  most  abject  lamentations,  Carac'- 
tacus stood  before  the  tribunal  with  an  intrepid  air,  and 


THK    KMPIRE.  287 

though  he  was  willing  to  accept  of  pardon,  was  not  mean 
enough  to  sue  for  it.  "  If,"  said  he,  "  1  had  yielded  imme- 
diately, and  without  opposing  you,  neither  would  my  for- 
tune have  been  remarkable,  nor  your  glory  memorable ;  you 
could  not  have  been  victorious,  and  I  had  been  forgotten. 
If  now,  therefore,  you  spare  my  life,  I  shall  continue  a  per- 
petual example  of  your  clemency."  Clau'dius  generously 
pardoned  him,  and  Osto'rius  was  decreed  a  triumph. 

20.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign  Clau'dius  gave  the 
highest  hopes  of  a  happy  continuance ;  but  he  soon  began 
to  lessen  his  care  for  the  public,  and  to  commit  to  his  fa- 
vourites all  the  concerns  of  the  empire.  This  prince,  weak 
from  his  infancy,  was  little  able,  when  called  to  govern,  to 
act  but  under  the  direction  of  others.  21.  One  of  his  chief 
instructors  was  his  wife  Messa'lina  :  whose  name  is  become 
a  common  appellation  for  women  of  abandoned  character. 
By  her  was  Clau'dius  urged  on  to  commit  cruelties,  which 
he  considered  only  as  wholesome  severities ;  while  her 
crimes  became  every  day  more  notorious,  and  exceeded 
what  had  ever  been  in  Rome.  For  her  crimes  and  enormi- 
ties, however,  she,  together  with  her  accomplice  Cai'us 
Sil'ius,  suffered  that  death  they  both  had  so  justly  deserved. 

22.  Clau'dius  afterwards  married  Agrippi'na,  the  (laugh- 
ter of  his  brother  German'icus,  a  woman  of  a  cruel  and  am- 
bitious spirit,  whose  only  aim  being  to  procure  the  succes- 
sion of  Nero,  her  son  by  a  former  marriage,  she  treated 
Claudius  with  such  haughtiness,  that  he  was  heard  to  de- 
clare, when  heated  with  wine,  that  it  was  his  fate  to  smart 
under  the  disorders  of  his  wives,  and  to  be  their  execu- 
tioner. 23.  This  expression  sunk  deep  in  her  mind,  and 
engaged  all  her  faculties  to  prevent  the  blow ;  she  therefore 
resolved  not  to  defer  a  deed  which  she  had  meditated  long 
before,  which  was  to  poison  him.  She  for  some  time  de- 
bated within  herself  in  what  quantity  the  poison  should  be 
administered,  as  she  feared  that  too  strong  a  dose  would  dis- 
cover the  treachery,  while  one  too  weak  would  fail  of  its 
effect.  24.  At  length  she  determined  upon  a  poison  of  sin- 
gular efficacy  to  destroy  his  intellects,  and  yet  not  suddenly 
to  terminate  his  life ;  it  was  given  among  mushrooms,  a 
dish  the  emperor  was  particularly  fond  of.  25.  Shortly  af- 
ter he  had  eaten,  he  dropped  down  insensible ;  but  this 
caused  no  alarm,  as  it  was  usual  with  him  to  eat  till  he  had 
stupified  his  faculties,  and  been  obliged  to  be  carried  from 
the  table  to  his  bed.  26.  His  constitution,  however,  seem 


ii88  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

eil  to  overcome  the  effects  of  the  potion;  but  Agrippi'na 
resolving  to  make  sure  of  him,  directed  a  wretch  of  a  phy* 
sician,  her  creature,  to  introduce  a  poisoned  feather  into  his 
throat,  under  pretence  of  making  him  vomit,  and  thus  to 
dispatch  him,  which  had  its  intended  effect.  Thus  died 
Clau'dius  the  First,  the  complicated  diseases  of  whose  in- 
fancy seemed  to  have  affected  and  perverted  all  the  faculties 
of  his  mind.  He  was  succeeded  by  Nero,  the  son  of  Agrip- 
pi'na by  her  first  husband.  Nero  had  been  adopted  by 
Clau'dius. 


Questions  for  Examination . 

1 .  What  happened  on  the  death  of  Caligula  ? 

2.  Who  was  appointed  his  successor  ? 

3.  What  was  the  character  of  Claudius? 

4.  How  did  he  conduct  himself! 

5.  By  what  farther  acts  did  he  distinguish  his  accession  ? 

6.  Did  he  adopt  any  warlike  measure? 

7.  By  whom  was  he  persuaded  to  interfere  1 

8.  Who  was  sent  into  that  country,  and  what  occurred  in  consequence* 

9.  What  resolution  did  Claudius  form? 

10.  Did  he  perform  any  memorable  exploits? 

11.  Was  his  return  celebraied  ? 

12.  Was  the  war  in  Britain  now  at  an  end  ? 

13.  Did  this  finish  the  war? 

14.  Who  were  the  most  formidable  adversaries  of  the  Romans? 

15.  How  did  he  distinguish  himself? 

16.  By  what  means  did  he  strengthen  the  courage  of  his  troops  ? 

17.  Were  his  efforts  successful  ? 

18.  What  happened  on  his  arrival  in  Rome  ? 

1 9.  What  was  his  behaviour  before  the  emperor  ? 

20.  Did  Claudius  continue  to  govern  well? 

21.  Who  was  the  chief  instigator  of  his  cruelties? 

22.  Who  was  the  second  wife  of  Claudius,  and  what  was  her  conduct 

towards  him  ? 

23.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  unguarded  expression? 

24.  On  what  did  she  at  length  resolve  ? 

25.  What  effect  did  it  produce  ? 

26.  Did  he  recover  ? 


THE    EMPIRE. 


280 


Rome  Nt  oo  fin,  by  order  of  Nero. 

SECTION  vn. 

u.  c.  793— A.  D.  55. 

1 .  NERO,  though  but  seventeen  years  old,  began  his  reign 
with  the  general  approbation   of  mankind.     He  appeared 
just,  liberal,  and  humane.     AVhen  a  warrant  for  the  execu- 
tion of  a  criminal  was  brought  to  be  signed,  he  would  cry 
out  with  compassion,  "  Would  to  heaven  that  I  had  never 
.earned  to  write  !" 

2.  But  as  he  increased  in  years,  his  native  disposition  be- 
gan to  show  itself.    The  execution  of  his  mother  Agrippi'na 
was  the  first  alarming  instance  he  gave  of  his  cruelty.    After 
attempting  to  get  her  drowned  at  sea,  he  ordered  her  to  be 
put  to  death  in  her  palace  ;  and  coming  to  gaze  upon  the 
dead  body,  was  heard  to  say,  that  he  had  never  thought  his 
mother  so  handsome  a  woman. 

3.  The  mounds  of  virtue  being  thus  broken  down,  Nero 
gave  a  loose  to  appetites  that  were  not  only  sordid,  but  in- 
human.    There  was  a  sort  of  odd  contrast  in  his  disposition ; 
for  while  he  practised  cruelties  sufficient  to  make  the  mind 
shudder  with  horror,  he  was  fond  of  those   amusing   arts 
which  soften  and  refine  the  heart.     He  was  particularly  ad- 
dicted, even  from  childhood,  to  music,  and  not  totally  igno- 
rant of  poetry ;  chariot-driving  was  his  favourite   pursuit; 
and  all  these  he  frequently  exhibited  in  public. 

4.  Happy  had  it  been  for  mankind,  had  he  confined  him- 
self to  these  ;  and  contented  with  being  contemptible,  sought 
not  to  become  formidable  also.     His  cruelties  exceeded  all 
his  other  extravagances.     5.    A  great  part  of  the  city  o 

2  B 


290  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Rome  was  consumed  by  fire  in  his  time,  and  to  him  most 
historians  ascribe  the  conflagration.  It  is  said  that  he  stood 
upon  a  high  tower,  during  the  continuance  of  the  flames, 
enjoying  the  sight,  and  singing,  in  a  theatrical  manner  to 
his  harp,  verses  upon  the  burning  of  Troy.  None  were 
permitted  to  lend  assistance  towards  extinguishing  the 
flames  ;  and  several  persons  were  seen  setting  fire  to  the 
houses,  alleging  that  they  had  orders  for  so  doing.  6.  How- 
ever this  be,  the  emperor  used  every  art  to  throw  the  odium 
of  so  detestable  an  action  from  himself,  and  fix  it  upon  the 
Christians,  who  were  at  that  time  gaining  ground  in  Rome. 
7.  Nothing  could  be  more  dreadful  than  the  persecution 
raised  against  them  upon  this  false  accusation.  Some  were 
covered  with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and,  in  that  disguise, 
devoured  by  the  dogs  ;  some  were  crucified,  and  others 
burnt  alive.  "  When  the  day  was  not  sufficient  for  thejr 
tortures,  the  flames,  in  which  they  perished,"  says  Ta'citus, 
"  served  to  illuminate  the  night ;"  while  Nero,  dressed  in 
the  habit  of  a  charioteer,  regaled  himself  with  a  view  of  their 
tortures  from  his  gardens,  and  entertained  the  people  at  one 
time  with  their  sufferings,  at  another  with  the  games  of  the 
circus.  8.  In  this  persecution  St.  Paul  was  beheaded,  and 
St.  Peter  crucified,  with  his  head  downwards ;  a  mode  of 
death  he  chose,  as  being  more  dishonourable  than  that  of 
his  divine  Master. 

9.  A  conspiracy  formed  against  Nero,  by  Piso,  a  man  of 
great  power  and  integrity,  which  was  prematurely  dis- 
covered, opened  a  train  of  suspicions  that  destroyed  many 
of  the  principal  families  in  Rome,  10.  The  two  most  re- 
markable personages  who  fell  on  this  occasion,  were  Sen'- 
eca,  the  philosopher,  and  Lucan  the  poet,  his  nephew. 
Nero,  either  having  real  testimony,  or  else  hating  him  for 
his  virtues,  sent  a  tribune  to  Sen'eca,*  informing  him  that 
he  was  suspected  as  an  accomplice.  The  tribune  found  the 
philosopher  at  table  with  Pauli'na,  his  wife  ;  and  informing 
him  of  his  business,  Sen'eca  replied  without  emotion,  that  his 
welfare  depended  upon  no  man ;  that  he  had  never  been  ac- 

*  Sen'eca,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  and  a  son  of  Sen'eca  the  orator, 
was  born  at  Corduba,  in  Spain,  A.  D.  8.  This  town  was  ako  the  birth- 
place of  his  father.  (Strabo  and  Lucan.)  Corduba  was  founded  by  the 
Romans,  B.  C.  150:  and  in  process  of  time  it  became  the  residence  of 
the  Moorish  kings,  and  where  they  continued  till  their  expulsion  into 
Africa.  It  was  in  the  vicinity  of  this  city  that  Caesar  fought  his  last  ba> 
tie  with  the  sons  of  Pompey 


THE    EMPIRE.  291 

customed  to  indulge  the  errors  of  the  emperor,  and  would 
not  do  it  now.  11.  When  this  answer  was  brought  to 
Nero,  he  demanded  whether  Sen'eca  seemed  afraid  to  die ; 
the  tribune  replying  that  he  did  not  appear  in  the  least  ter- 
rified ;  "  Then  go  to  him  again,"  cried  the  emperor,  "  and 
give  him  my  orders  to  die."  Accordingly  he  sent  a  centu- 
rion to  Sen'eca,  signifying  that  it  was  the  emperor's  plea- 
sure that  he  should  die.  Sen'eca  seemed  no  way  discom- 
posed, but  displayed  the  fortitude  of  conscious  integrity. 
He  endeavoured  to  console  his  wife,  and  exhorted  her  to  a 
life  of  persevering  virtue.  12.  She  seemed  resolved,  how- 
ever, not  to  survive  him,  and  pressed  her  request  to  die 
with  him  so  earnestly,  that  Sen'eca,  who  had  long  looked 
upon  death  as  a  benefit,  at  last  gave  his  consent ;  and  the 
veins  of  both  their  arms  were  opened  at  the  same  time.  13. 
As  Sen'eca  was  old,  and  much  enfeebled  by  the  austerities 
of  his  life,  the  blood  flowed  but  slowly  ;  so  that  he  caused 
the  veins  of  his  legs  and  thighs  to  be  opened  also.  His 
pains  were  long  and  violent,  but  they  were  not  capable  of 
repressing  his  fortitude  or  his  eloquence.  He  dictated  a  dis- 
course to  two  secretaries,  which  was  read  with  great  avidity 
after  his  death,  but  which  has  since  perished  in  the  lapse  of 
time.  14.  His  agonies  being  now  drawn  out  to  a  great 
length,  he  at  last  demanded  poison  from  his  physician ;  but 
this  also  failed  of  its  effect,  his  body  being  already  exhausted, 
and  incapable  of  exciting  its  operation.  He  was  from  this 
carried  into  a  warm  bath,  which  only  served  to  prolong  his 
sufferings ;  at  length,  therefore,  he  was  put  in  a  stove,  the 
vapour  of  which  quickly  dispatched  him.  15.  In  the  mean 
time  his  wife,  Pauli'na,  having  fallen  into  a  swoon  with  the 
loss  of  blood,  had  her  arms  bound  up  by  her  domestics,  and 
by  this  means  survived  her  husband  for  some  years  ;  but  by 
her  conduct  during  the  rest  of  her  life,  she  seemed  never  to 
forget  her  affection  and  his  example. 

16.  The  death  of  Lucan  was  not  less  remarkable.    After 
he  had  lost  a  great  quantity  of  blood  from  the  veins  of  his 
arms,  perceiving  his  hands  and  legs  already  dead,  while  the 
vital  parts  still  continued  warm  and  vigorous,  he  called  to 
mind  the  description  of  his  own  poem  of  the  Pharsa'lia,  of 
a   person   dying   in    similar    circumstances,    and    expired 
while  he  was  repeating  the  passage. 

17.  The  death  of  C.  Patro'nius,  about  this    Cu.  c.  817. 
time,  is  too  remarkable  to  be  passed  over  in    (  A.  D.  66. 
silence.     This  person,  whom  some  historians  suppose  to  be 


292  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the  author  of  the  piece  entitled  T.  Petro'nii  Arbi'tri  Saty' 
ricon,  was  an  Epicu'rean,  both  in  principle  and  practice.  In 
a  court  like  that  of  Nero,  he  was  esteemed  for  his  refine- 
ments in  luxury,  and  became  the  emperor's  tutor  in  this  ex- 
quisite art.  18.  Accused  of  being  privy  to  Piso's  conspi- 
racy, he  was  committed  to  prison.  Petro'nius,  who  could 
not  endure  the  anxiety  of  suspense,  resolved  upon  putting 
himself  to  death,  by  causing  his  veins  to  be  opened.  19.  In 
the  mean  time,  he  conversed  with  his  friends,  not  upon 
maxims  of  philosophy,  or  grave  subjects,  but  upon  such 
topics  as  had  amused  his  gayest  revels.  He  listened  while 
they  recited  the  lightest  poems  ;  and  by  no  action,  no  word, 
no  circumstance,  showed  the  perplexity  of  a  dying  person. 
20.  Shortly  after  him,  Numi'cius  Thermus,  Bare'a  Sora'- 
nus,  and  Pe'tus  Thra'sea,  were  put  to  death.  The  valiant 
Cor'bulo,  who  had  gained  Nero  so  many  victories  over 
the  Parthians,  followed  next.  Nor  did  the  empress  Pop- 
pae'a  herself  escape.  21.  At  length  human  nature  grew 
weary  of  bearing  her  persecutor;  and  the  whole  world 
seemed  to  rouse,  as  if  by  comncon  consent,  to  rid  the  earth 
of  a  monster. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  was  Nero's  conduct  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  ? 

2.  Did  this  disposition  continue? 

3.  What  was  there  peculiar  in  his  disposition  ? 

4.  Were  these  his  greatest  faults  ? 

5.  Of  what  heinous  crime  is  he  accused  1 

6.  On  whom  was  the  odium  of  this  barbarous  action  cast  ? 

7.  What  was  the  consequence  to  these  unhappy  men  1 

8.  What  eminent  persons  suffered  on  this  occasion? 

9.  Did  not  these  cruelties  give  birth  to  conspiracies  ? 

10.  What  persons  of  note  suffered  in  consequence  \ 

11.  Did  this  defence  save  his  life? 

1 2.  Were  his  exhortations  effectual  ? 

13.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  Seneca's  death? 

14.  Were  not  other  means  resorted  to  ? 

15.  Did  not  Paulina  survive  him  1 

16.  D«scribe  the  death  of  Lucan. 

17.  What  other  victim  of  Nero's  cruelty  deserves  mention  * 

18.  What  brought  him  into  danger  ! 
1 9    How  did  he  meet  death  ? 

20.  Were  not  other  illustrious  persons  sacrificed  ? 
321    Were  these  cruelties  committed  with  impunity  ? 


THE    EMPIRE.  293 

SECTION  VIII. 

1.  SER'VIUS  GALBA,  at  that  time  governor  of  Spain,  was 
lemarkable  for  his  wisdom  in  peace,  and  his  courage  in  war; 
but  as  a  display  of  talents  under  corrupt  princes  is  danger- 
ous, he,  for  some  years,  had  seemed  to  court  obscurity  and 
an  inactive  life.  2.  Willing,  however,  to  rid  his  country  of 
the  monster  that  now  occupied  the  throne,  he  accepted  the 
invitation  of  Vindex,  to  march  with  an  army  towards  Rome. 
3.  From  the  moment  he  declared  against  Nero,  the  tyrant 
considered  himself  as  fallen.  He  received  the  account  as 
he  was  at  supper,  and  instantly  struck  with  terror,  over- 
turned the  table  with  his  foot,  breaking  two  crystal  vases  of 
immense  value.  He  fell  into  a  swoon,  and  on  his  recovery 
tore  his  clothes  and  struck  his  head,  crying  out,  "  that  he 
was  utterly  undone."  4.  He  now  called  for  the  assistance 
of  Locus'ta,  a  woman  famous  in  the  art  of  poisoning,  to 
furnish  him  with  the  means  of  death ;  but  being  prevented 
in  this,  and  the  revolt  becoming  general,  he  went  in  person 
from  house  to  house ;  but  the  doors  were  shut  against  him. 
Being  reduced  to  a  state  of  desperation,  he  desired  that  one 
of  his  favourite  gladiators  might  dispatch  him  ;  but  even  in 
this  request  not  one  would  obey.  "  Alas,"  cried  he,  "  have 
I  neither  friend  nor  enemy  ?"  then  running  desperately 
forth,  he  seemed  resolved  to  plunge  headlong  into  the  Ti'ber. 
5.  But  his  courage  failed  him ;  he  made  a  sudden  stop,  as 
if  willing  to  re-collect  his  reason,  and  asked  for  some  sacred 
place  where  he  might  reassume  his  courage,  and  meet  death 
with  becoming  fortitude.  6.  In  this  distress,  Pha'on,  one 
of  his  freedmen,  offered  him  his  country-house,  about  four 
miles  distant,  where  he  might  for  some  time  remain  con- 
cealed. Nero  accepted  the  offer ;  and,  with  his  head%co- 
vered,  hiding  his  face  with  his  handkerchief,  he  mounted  on 
horseback,  attended  by  four  of  his  domestics,  of  whom  the 
wretched  Sporus  was  one.  7.  His  journey,  though  short, 
was  crowded  with  adventures.  An  earthquake  gave  him  the 
first  alarm.  The  lightning  from  heaven  next  flashed  in  his 
face.  Round  him  he  heard  nothing  but  confused  noises 
from  the  camp,  the  cries  of  the  soldiers  imprecating  a  thou- 
sand evils  upon  his  head.  8.  A  traveller,  meeting  him  on 
the  way,  cried,  "  Those  men  are  in  pursuit  of  Nero."  An- 
other asked  him  if  there  was  any  news  of  Nero  in  the  city. 
His  horse  taking  fright  at  a  dead  body  that  lay  near  the 
2B  2 


294  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

road,  he  dropped  his  handkerchief,  when  a  soldier  address- 
ing him  by  name,  he  quitted  his  horse,  and  forsaking  the 
highway,  entered  a  thicket  that  led  towards  the  back  part 
<»f  Pha'ron's  house,  making  the  best  of  his  way  among  the 
feeds  and  brambles  with  which  the  place  was  overgrown. 
0.  During  this  interval,  the  senate,  finding  the  Practo'rian 
guards  had  taken  part  with  Galba,  declared  him  emperor, 
and  condemned  Nero  to  die,  mo' re  majo'rum;  that  is,  ac- 
cording to  the  rigour  of  the  ancient  laws.  10.  When  he 
was  told  of  the  resolution  of  the  senate,  he  asked  what  was 
meant  by  being  punished  according  to  the  rigour  of  the  an- 
cient laws  ?  To  this  it  was  answered,  that  the  criminal  was 
to  be  stripped  naked,  his  head  fixed  in  a  pillory,  and  in  that 
posture  he  was  to  be  scourged  to  death.  11.  Nero  was  so 
terrified  at  this,  that  he  seized  two  poniards,  which  he  had 
brought  with  him  :  after  examining  their  points,  he  returned 
them,  however,  to  their  sheaths,  pretending  that  the  fatal 
moment  was  not  yet  arrived.  12.  He  then  desired  Sporus 
to  begin  the  lamentations  which  were  used  at  funerals  ;  he 
next  entreated  that  one  of  his  attendants  would  die,  to  give 
him  courage  by  his  example,  and  afterwards  began  to  re- 
proach his  own  cowardice,  crying  out,  "  Does  this  become 
Nero  ?  Is  this  trifling  well-timed  ?  No  ! — let  me  be  cour- 
ageous !'  In  fact,  he  had  no  time  to  spare ;  for  the  sol- 
diers who  had  been  sent  in  pursuit  of  him,  were  just  then 
approaching  the  house.  13.  Upon  hearing,  therefore,  the 
sound  of  the  horses'  feet,  he  set  a  dagger  to  his  throat,  with 
which,  by  the  assistance  of  Epaphrod'itus,  his  freedman 
and  secretary,  he  gave  himself  a  mortal  wound.  14.  How- 
ever, he  was  not  yet  dead  when  one  of  the  centurions,  en- 
tering the  room  and  pretending  that  he  came  to  his  relief, 
attempted  to  stop  the  blood  with  his  cloak.  But  Nero,  re- 
garding him  with  a  stern  countenance,  said,  "  It  is  now  too 
late  !  Is  this  your  fidelity  ?"  Upon  which,  with  his  eyes 
fixed  and  frightfully  staring,  he  expired ;  exhibiting,  even 
after  death,  a  ghastly  spectacle  of  innoxious  tyranny.  15. 
He  reigned  thirteen  years,  seven  months,  and  twenty-eight 
days,  and  died  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age. 

16.  Galba  Avas  seventy-two  years  old  when  he  was  de- 
u.  c.  820.  }  clared  emperor,  and  was  then  in  Spain  with  his 
A.  D.69.  5  legions.  He  soon  found  that  his  being  raised 
to  the  thnne  was  but  an  inlet  to  new  disquietudes.  17.  He 
seemed  to  have  three  objects  in  view :  to  curb  the  insolence 
of  the  soldiers  ;  to  punish  those  vices  which  had  risen  to  an 


THE    EMPIRE.  295 

enormous  height  in  the  last  reign  ;  and  to  replenish  the  ex- 
chequer, which  had  been  drained  by  the  prodigality  of  his 
predecessors.  18.  However,  permitting  himself  to  be  go- 
verned by  favourites,  he  at  one  time  showed  himself  severe 
and  frugal ;  at  another  remiss  and  prodigal ;  condemning 
some  illustrious  persons  without  any  hearing,  and  pardon- 
ing others,  though  guilty.  In  consequence  of  this,  seditions 
were  kindled,  and  factions  promoted. 

19.  Galba  was  sensible  that,  besides  his  age,  his  want  of 
an  heir  rendered  him  less  respected:  he  resolved,  therefore, 
to  adopt  a  person  whose  virtues  might  deserve  such  ad- 
vancement, and  protect  his  declining  age  from  danger ;  but 
his  favourites  wished  to  give  him  an  heir  of  their  own 
choosing ;  so  that  there  arose  a  great  contention  among 
them  upon  this  occasion.  '  20.  Otho  made  earnest  applica- 
tion for  himself,  alleging  the  great  services  he  had  done  the 
emperor,  as  being  the  first  man  of  note  who  came  to  his  as- 
sistance when  he  declared  against  Nero.  21.  However, 
Galba,  being  fully  resolved  to  consult  the  public  good  alone, 
rejected  his  suit ;  and,  on  a  day  appointed,  ordered  Piso 
Lucia'nus  to  attend  him.  The  character  given  by  histo- 
rians of  Piso  is,  that  he  was  every  way  worthy  of  the 
honour  designed  him.  22.  Taking  this  youth  by  the  hand, 
Galba  adopted  him  to  succeed  in  the  empire,  giving  him  the 
most  wholesome  lessons  for  guiding  his  future  conduct. 
Piso  showed  that  he  was  highly  deserving  this  distinction  , 
in  all  his  deportment  there  appeared  such  modesty,  firmness, 
and  equality  of  mind  as  bespoke  him  rather  capable  of  dis- 
charging than  ambitious  of  obtaining  his  present  dignity. 
2M.  Hut  the  army  and  the  senate  did  not  seem  equally  dis- 
interested upon  this  occasion ;  they  had  been  so  long  used 
to  bribery  and  corruption,  that  they  could  now  bear  no  em- 
peror who  was  not  in  a  capacity  of  satisfying  their  avarice. 
The  'adoption,  therefore,  of  Piso,  was  coldly  received ;  for 
his  virtues  were  no  recommendation  in  a  time  of  universal 
depravity. 

24.  Otho,  who  had  long  been  a  favourite  of  Galba,  and 
hoped  to  be  adopted  a  successor  in  the  empire,  finding  him- 
self disappointed,  and  stimulated  by  the  immense  load  of 
debt  which  he  had  contracted  by  his  riotous  way  of  living, 
resolved  upon  obtaining  the  empire  by  force,  since  he  could 
not  do  it  by  peaceable  succession.  Having  corrupted  the 
fidelity  of  the  army,  he  stole  secretly  from  the  emperor 
while  he  was  sacrificing,  and,  assembling  the  soldiers,  he, 


296  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

in  a  short  speech,  urged  the  cruelties  and  the  avarice  of 
Galba.  25.  Finding  his  invectives  received  with  universal 
shouts  by  the  army,  he  entirely  threw  off  the  mask,  and 
avowed  his  intention  of  dethroning  him.  The  soldiers  being 
ripe  for  sedition,  immediately  seconded  his  views,  and  taking 
Otho  upon  their  shoulders,  declared  him  emperor ;  and  to 
strike  the  citizens  with  terror,  carried  him,  with  their  swords 
drawn,  into  the  camp. 

26.  Soon  after,  finding  Galba  in  some  measure  deserted 
by  his  adherents,  the  soldiers  rushed  in  upon  him,  trampling 
under  foot  the  crowds  of  people  that  then  filled  the  forum. 

27.  Galba  seeing  them  approach,  seemed  to  recollect  all  his 
former  fortitude ;  and  bending  his  head  forward,  bid  the 
assassins  strike  it  off,  if  it  were  for  the  good  of  the  people. 

28.  The  command  was  quickly  obeyed.     The  soldier  who 
struck  it  off  stuck  it  upon  the  point  of  a  lance,  and  con- 
temptuously carried  it  round  the  camp  ;  his  body  remaining 
unburied  in  the  streets  till  it  was  interred  by  one  of  his 
slaves.     His  short  reign  of  seven  months  was  as  illustrious 
by  his  own  virtues  as  it  was  contaminated  by  the  vices  of 
his  favourites,  who  shared  in  his  downfall. 

29.  Otho,  who  was  now  elected  emperor,  began  his  reign 
by  a  signal  instance  of  clemency,  in  pardoning  Marius  Cel- 
sus,  who  had  been  highly  favoured  by  Galba ;  and  not  con- 
tent with  barely  forgiving,  he  advanced  him  to  the  highest 
honours,  asserting  that  "  fidelity  deserved  every  reward." 

30.  In  the  mean  time,  the  legions  in  Lower  Germany 
having  been  purchased  by  the  large  gifts  and  specious  pro- 
mises of  Vitel'lius  their  general,  were  at  length  induced  to 
proclaim  him  emperor ;  and,  regardless  of  the  senate,  they 
declared  that  they  had  an  equal  right  to  appoint  to  that  high 
station,  with  the  cohorts  at  Rome. 

31.  Otho   departed   from   Rome  with  all   haste  to  give 
Vitel'lius  battle.     The  army  of  Vitel'lius,  which  consisted 
of  seventy  thousand  men,  was  commanded  by  his  generals 
Va'lens  and   Cecin'na,  he  himself  remaining  in  Gaul,  in 
order  to  bring  up  the  rest  of  his  forces.     Both  sides  hasten- 
ened  to  meet  each  other  with  so  much  animosity  and  preci- 
pitation, that  three  considerable  battles  were  fought  in  the 
space  of  three  days,  in  all  of  which  Otho  and  the  Romans 
had  the  advantage.     32.  These  successes,  however,  were 
but  of  short  continuance,  for  Va'lens  and  Cecin'na,  Avho  had 
hitherto  acted  separately,  joining  their  forces,  and  strength- 
ening their  armies  with  fresh  supplies,  resolved  to  come  to 


THE    EMPIRE.  297 

a  general  engagement.  Otho's  forces  were  partially  over- 
thrown at  Bedria'cum,  a  village  near  Cremo'na,  in  Lom- 
bardy,  in  Italy ;  and  though  he  had  still  numerous  armies 
at  his  devotion,  he  killed  himself  shortly  after,  having 
reigned  three  months  and  five  days,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Vitel'lius. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  character  of  Sergius  Galba! 

2.  Did  he  at  length  emerge  from  his  obscurity  ? 

3.  Was  he  formidable  to  Nero  1 

4.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Nero  on  this  emergency  ! 

5.  Did  he  actually  do  so  ? 

6.  Was  his  request  complied  with  1 

7.  What  befell  him  by  the  way  1 

8.  What  farther  happened  1 

9.  What  occurred  in  the  interval  ! 

10.  How  did  Nero  receive  this  intelligence? 

1 1    Did  he  resolve  to  await  this  terrible  punishment  1 

12.  How  did  he  contrive  to  put  off  the  fatal  moment! 

13.  What  at  length  put  an  end  to  this  irresolution  1 

14.  Was  he  dead  when  the  soldiers  arrived  1 

15.  How  long  did  he  reign  1 

16.  What  was  the  age  of  Galba  on  his  accession! 

17.  What  were  his  principal  views! 

18.  Was  his  conduct  regular  and  consistent! 

19.  What  important  measure  did  he  adopt! 

20.  Who  was  the  chief  candidate  on  the  occasion  ! 

21.  Was  he  chosen  ! 

22.  Was  Piso  the  chosen  successor,  and  what  was  his  character  ! 

23.  Was  this  adoption  generally  approved ! 

24.  Did  not  Otho  attempt  to  set  him  aside  ! 

25.  Was  he  favourably  received  ? 

26.  Did  Galba  suppress  this  rebellion ! 

27.  What  was  his  behaviour  on  the  occasion  ! 

28.  Was  this  command  obeyed,  and  what  treatment  did  Galba  cxp» 

rience ! 

29.  How  did  Otho  commence  his  reign  ! 

30.  Did  he  reign  without  a  rival ! 

3 1 .  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  rivalship ! 
33.  Was  Otho  finally  successful! 


298  HISTORY    OF    ROMK. 

SECTION  IX. 

A.  D.  70. 

1.  VITEL'LIUS  was  declared  emperor  by  the  senate,  and 
received  the  marks  of  distinction  which  were  now  accus 
tomed  to  follow  the  appointments  of  the  strongest  side. 

2.  Upon  his  arrival  at  Rome,  he  entered  the  city,  not  as 
a  place  he  came  to  govern  with  justice,  but  as  a  town  that 
was  become  his  own  by  the  laws  of  conquest. 

3.  Vitel'lius  soon  gave  himself  up  to  all  kinds  of  luxury 
and  profuseness  ;  but  gluttony  was  his  favourite  vice.     His 
entertainments,  seldom  indeed  at  his  own  cost,  were  pro- 
digiously expensive.     He  frequently  invited  himself  to  the 
tables  of  his  subjects  ;  in  the  same  day  breakfasting  with 
one,  dining  with  another,  and  supping  with  a  third.    4.  By 
such  vices  and  by  enormous  cruelties,  he  became  a  burthen 
to  himself,  and  odious  to  all  mankind.     Having  become  in- 
supportable to  the  inhabitants  of  Rome,  the  legions  of  the 
East  unanimously  resolved  to  make  Vespa'sian  emperor. 

5.  During  the  preparations  against  him,  Vitel'lius,  though 
buried  in  sloth  and  luxury,  resolved  to  make  an  effort  to 
defend  the  empire  ;  and  his  chief  commanders,  Va'lens  and 
Cecin'na,  were  ordered  to  make  all  possible  preparations  to 
resist  the  invaders.  6.  The  first  army  that  entered  Italy 
with  a  hostile  intention,  was  under  the  command  of  Anto'- 
nius  Pri'mus,  who  was  met  by  Cecin'na,  near  Cremo'na. 
A  battle  was  expected  to  ensue ;  but  a  negociation  taking 
place,  Cecin'na  was  prevailed  upon  to  change  sides,  and 
declared  for  Vespa'sian.*  His  army,  however,  quickly  re- 
pented of  what  they  had  done,  and,  imprisoning  their  gene- 
rs.1,  attacked  Anto'nius,  though  without  a  leader.  7.  The 
engagement  continued  the  whole  night ;  and  in  the  morning, 
after  a  short  repast,  both  armies  engaged  a  second  time ; 
when  the  soldiers  of  Anto'nius  saluting  the  rising  sun,  ac- 
cording to  custom,  the  Vitel'lians  supposed  that  they  had 
received  new  reinforcements,  and  betook  themselves  to 
flight,  with  the  loss  of  thirty  thousand  men. 

8.  In  the  mean  time,  Vitel'lius  made  offers  to  Vespa'sian 
of  resigning  the  empire  in  his  favour,  provided  his  life  were 

*  Vespasian  was  at  that  time  conducting  the  war  in  Jude'a,  in  Asia. 


THE    EMPIRE.  209 

spared,  and  a  sufficient  revenue  allotted  for  his  support. 
In  order  to  enforce  this  proposal,  he  issued  from  his  palace 
in  deep  mourning,  with  all  his  domestics  weeping  round  him. 
&.  He  then  went  to  offer  the  sword  of  justice  to  Cecil'ius, 
the  consul,  which  he  refusing,  the  abject  emperor  prepared 
to  lay  down  the  ensigns  of  empire  in  the  Temple  of  Concord  ; 
but  being  interrupted  by  some  who  cried  out,  that  he  him- 
self was  Concord,  he  resolved,  upon  so  weak  an  encourage- 
ment, still  to  maintain  his  power,  and  immediately  prepared 
for  his  defence. 

10.  During  this  fluctuation  of  counsels,  one  Sabi'nus,  who 
had  advised  Vitel'lius  to  resign,  perceiving  his  desperate 
situation,  resolved,  by  a  bold  step,  to  favour  Vespa'sian ; 
and  accordingly  seized  upon  the  capitol.  But  he  was  pre- 
mature in  his  attempt ;  for  the  soldiers  of  Vitel'lius  attacked 
him  with  great  fury  ;  and  prevailing  by  their  numbers,  soon 
laid  that  beautiful  building  in  ashes.  11.  During  this  dread- 
ful conflagration,  Vitel'lius  was  feasting  in  the  palace  of  Ti- 
be'rius,  and  beheld  all  the  horrors  of  the  assault  with  satis- 
faction. 12.  Sabi'nus  was  taken  prisoner,  and  shortly  after 
executed  by  the  emperor's  command.  Young  Domi'tian, 
his  nephew,  who  was  afterwards  emperor,  escaped  by  flight, 
in  the  habit  of  a  priest ;  and  the  rest,  who  survived  the  fire, 
were  put  to  the  sword. 

13.  But  Anto'nius,  Vespa'sian's  commander,  being  ar- 
rived before  the  walls  of  the  city,  the  forces  of  Vitel'lius  re- 
solved upon  defending  it  to  the  utmost  extremity.     It  was 
attacked  with  fury;    while  the  army  within,  sallying  out 
upon  the  besiegers,  defended  it  with  equal  obstinacy.     The 
battle  lasted  the  whole  day ;  the  besieged  were  driven  back 
into  the  city,  and  a  dreadful  slaughter  made  of  them  in  the 
streets  which  they  vainly  attempted  to  defend. 

14.  Vitel'lius  was  soon  found  hidden  in  an  obscure  cor- 
ner, whence  he  was  taken  by  a  party  of  the  conquering  sol- 
diers.    Still,  however,  desirous  of  adding  a  few  hours  to  his 
miserable  life,  he  begged  to  be  kept  in  prison  till  the  arrival 
of  Vespa'sian  at  Rome,  pretending  that  he  had  secrets  of 
importance  to  discover.     15.  But  his  entreaties  were  vain  ; 
the  soldiers  binding  his  hands  behind  him,  and  throwing  a 
halter  round  his  neck,  led  him  along,  half  naked,  into  the 
public  forum,  loading  him  with  all  the  bitter  reproaches  their 
malice    could   suggest,   or  his  cruelty  might  deserve.     At 
length,  being  come  to  the  place  of  punishment,  they  put  him 
to  death  with  blows :    and  then  dragging   the  dead    body 


300  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

through  the  streets  with  a  hook,  they  threw  it,  with  all  possi 
ble  ignominy,  into  the  river  Tiber. 

16.  Vespa'sian  was  now  declared  emperor  by  the  unani- 
A.  D.  >  mous  consent  both  of  the  senate  and  the  army ;  and 
70.  5  dignified  with  all  those  titles  which  now  followed 
rather  the  power  than  the  merit  of  those  who  were  appointed 
to  govern.  17.  Having  continued  some  months  at  Alexan'- 
dria,  in  Egypt,  where  it  is  said  he  cured  a  blind  man  and  a 
cripple  by  touching  them,  he  set  out  for  Rome.  Giving  his 
son,  Ti'tus,  the  command  of  the  army  that  was  to  lay  siege 
to  Jerusalem,  he  himself  went  forward,  and  was  met  many 
miles  from  Rome  by  all  the  senate,  and  the  inhabitants,  who 
gave  the  sincerest  testimony  of  their  joy,  in  having  an  em- 
peror of  such  great  and  experienced  virtue.  18.  Nor  did  he 
in  the  least  disappoint  their  expectations  ;  as  he  showed  him- 
self equally  assiduous  in  rewarding  merit  and  pardoning  his 
adversaries  ;  in  reforming  the  manners  of  the  citizens,  and 
setting  them  the  best  example  in  his  own. 

19.  In  the  mean  time  Titus  carried  on  the  war  against 
the  Jews  with  vigour.  This  obstinate  and  infatuated  people 
had  long  resolved  to  resist  the  Roman  power,  vainly  hoping 
to  find  protection  from  heaven,  which  their  impieties  had 
utterly  offended.  20.  Their  own  historian  represents  them 
as  arrived  at  the  highest  pitch  of  iniquity ;  while  famines, 
earthquakes,  and  prodigies,  all  conspired  to  forebode  their 
approaching  ruin.  21.  Nor  was  it  sufficient  that  heaven  and 
earth  seemed  combined  against  them ;  they  had  the  most 
bitter  dissensions  among  themselves,  and  were  divided  into 
two  parties,  who  robbed  and  destroyed  each  other  with  im- 
punity :  constantly  pillaging,  yet  boasting  their  zeal  for  the 
religion  of  their  ancestors. 

22.  At  the  head  of  one  of  these  parties  was  an  incendiary, 
whose  name  was  John.  This  fanatic  affected  sovereign 
power,  and  filled  the  whole  city  of  Jeru'salem,  and  all  the 
towns  around,  with  tumult  and  pillage.  In  a  short  time  a 
new  faction  arose,  headed  by  one  Si'mon,  who,  gathering 
together  multitudes  of  robbers  and  murderers  who  had  lied 
to  the  mountains,  attacked  many  cities  and  towns,  and  re- 
duced all  Idume'a  under  his  power.  23.  Jeru'salem,  at 
length,  became  the  theatre  in  which  these  two  demagogues 
exercised  their  mutual  animosity :  John  was  possessed  of 
the  temple,  while  Si'mon  was  admitted  into  the  city;  both 
equally  enraged  against  each  other  ;  while  slaughter  and  de- 
vastation were  the  consequence  of  their  pretensions.  Thus 


THE    KMPIRK.  301 

J  [  a  city  formerly  celebrated  for  peace  and  unity,  become 
the  seat  of  tumult  and  confusion. 

24.  In  this  miserable  situation,  Ti'tus  began  his  opera- 
tions within  six  furlongs  of  Jeru'salem,  during  the  feast  of 
the  passover,  when  the  place  was  filled  with  an  infinite  mul- 
titude of  people,  who  had  come  from  all  parts  to  celebrate 
that  great  solemnity.  25.  The  approach  of  the  Romans 
produced  a  temporary  reconciliation  between  the  contending 
factions  within  the  city ;  so  that  they  unanimously  resolved 
to  oppose  the  common  enemy,  and  decide  their  domestic  quar- 
rels at  a  more  convenient  season.  26.  Their  first  sally,  which 
was  made  with  much  fury  and  resolution,  put  the  besiegers 
into  great  disorder,  and  obliged  them  to  abandon  their  camp, 
and  fly  to  the  mountains ;  however,  rallying  immediately 
after,  the  Jews  were  forced  back  into  the  city,  while  Ti'tus, 
in  person,  showed  surprising  instances  of  valour  and  con- 
duct. 

27.  The  city  was  strongly  fortified  with  three  walls  on 
every  side,  except  where  it  was  fenced  by  precipices.  Ti'- 
tus began  by  battering  down  the  outward  wall,  which,  after 
much  fatigue  and  danger,  he  effected  ;  in  the  mean  time 
showing  the  greatest  clemency  to  the  Jews,  and  offering 
them  repeated  assurances  of  pardon.  Five  days  after  the 
commencement  of  the  siege,  Ti'tus  broke  through  the  se- 
cond wall ;  and  though  driven  back  by  the  besieged,  he  re- 
covered his  ground,  and  made  preparations  for  battering  the 
third  wall,  which  was  their  last  defence.  28.  But  first  he 
sent  Jose'phus,  their  countryman,  into  the  city,  to  exhort 
them  to  yield ;  who  using  all  his  eloquence  to  persuade  them, 
was  answered  only  with  scoffs  and  reproaches.  29.  The 
siege  was  now  therefore  carried  on  with  greater  vigour  than 
before ;  formidable  engines  for  throwing  darts  and  stones 
were  constructed,  and  as  quickly  destroyed  by  the  enemy. 
At  length  it  was  resolved  in  council  to  surround  the  whole 
city  with  a  trench,  and  thus  prevent  all  relief  and  all  suc- 
cours from  abroad.  30.  This,  which  was  quickly  executed, 
seemed  no  way  to  intimidate  the  Jews.  Though  famine, 
and  pestilence  its  necessary  attendant,  began  now  to  make 
the  most  horrid  ravages  among  them,  yet  this  desperate  peo- 
ple still  resolved  to  hold  out.  31.  Ti'tus  now  cut  down  all 
the  woods  within  a  considerable  distance  of  the  city ;  and 
causing  more  batteries  to  be  raised,  he  at  length  beat  down 
the  wall,  and  in  five  days  entered  the  citadel  by  force.  32. 
The  Jews,  however,  continued  to  deceive  themselves  with 
2C 


302  HISTORY    OF    HOME. 

absurd  expectations,  while  many  false  prophets  deluded  the 
multitude,  by  declaring  that  they  should  soon  have  assist- 
ance from  God.  The  heat  of  the  battle  was  now  gathered 
round  the  inner  wall  of  the  temple,  while  the  defendants 
desperately  combatted  from  the  top.  33.  Ti'tus  was  de- 
sirous of  saving  this  beautiful  structure  ;  but  a  soldier  casting 
a  brand  into  some  adjacent  buildings,  the  fire  communi- 
cated to  the  temple ;  and  notwithstanding  the  utmost  en- 
deavours on  both  sides,  the  whole  edifice  was  quickly  con- 
sumed. 34.  The  sight  of  the  temple  in  ruins  effectually 
served  to  damp  the  ardour  of  the  Jews.  They  now  began 
to  suppose  that  heaven  had  forsaken  them,  while  their  cries 
and  lamentations  echoed  from  the  adjacent  mountains.  Even 
those  who  were  almost  expiring,  lifted  up  their  dying  eyes 
to  bewail  the  loss  of  their  temple,  which  they  valued  more 
than  life  itself.  35.  The  most  resolute,  however,  still  en- 
deavoured to  defend  the  upper  and  stronger  part  of  the  city, 
named  Sion ;  but  Ti'tus,  with  his  battering  engines,  soon 
made  himself  entire  master  of  the  place.  36.  John  and 
Simon  were  taken  from  the  vaults  where  they  had  concealed 
themselves ;  the  former  was  condemned  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment, and  the  latter  reserved  to  grace  the  conqueror's 
triumph.  The  greatest  part  of  the  populace  were  put  to  the 
sword ;  and  the  city  was,  after  a  six  month's  siege,  entirely 
razed,  and  its  site  ploughed  up ;  so  that  according  to  our 
Saviour's  prophecy,  not  one  stone  remained  upon  another. 
Those  who  perished  in  this  siege  amounted  to  about  a  mil- 
lion ;  the  captives  to  almost  a  hundred  thousand.* 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Who  succeeded  Otho? 

2.  In  what  way  did  he  assume  the  sovereignty  ? 

3.  How  did  he  conduct  himself  in  his  new  station  ? 

4.  What  were  the  consequences  of  this  conduct? 

5.  Did  Vitellius  tamely  submit  to  his  rival  1 

6.  Who  first  commenced  hostilities  1 

7.  What  followed  1 

8.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Vitellius  on  this  occasion  1 

9.  What  farther  measures  did  he  adopt? 

10.  Were  the  friends  of  Vespasian  idle  at  this  juncture  ? 

1 1.  How  was  Vitellius  engaged  at  the  time  of  this  disaster  ? 

1 2.  What  became  of  Sabinus  ? 

*  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  happened  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  70 


THE    EMPIRE.  303 

13.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  success  on  the  part  of  Vitellius  ! 

14.  What  became  of  the  fallen  emperor  ! 

15.  Was  his  request  granted  1 

1 6.  Did  Vespasian  quietly  succeed  ? 

17.  What  were  his  first  measures  1 

18.  Were  they  disappointed  in  their  expectations  1 

19.  What  was  the  state  of  the  Jewish  war! 

20.  What  was  the  state  of  the  Jewish  nation  1 

21.  Were  they  united  among  themselves1! 

22.  Who  were  at  the  head  of  these  factions  ? 

23.  What  was  the  chief  theatre  of  their  enormities  1 

24.  At  what  remarkable  season  did  Titus  commence  his  attack ' 

25.  What  effect  did  this  attack  produce  ? 

26.  Did  the  Jews  bravely  defend  their  city  ? 

27.  What  progress  did  Titus  make  in  the  siege  1 

28.  Did  he  make  no  attempt  to  persuade  the  Jews  to  surrender  ! 

29.  What  measures  were  then  adopted  1 

30.  Did  these  formidable  measures  terrify  the  Jews  1 

31.  By  what  means  did  Titus  gain  the  city  1 

32.  Was  all  opposition  now  at  an  end ! 

33.  Was  the  temple  destroyed  ? 

34.  What  effect  did  this  sad  event  produce  ? 

35.  Were  there  none  who  attempted  farther  resistance  ? 

36.  What  became  of  the  inhabitants  and  their  chiefs  1 


SECTION  X. 

1.  UPON  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  the  soldiers  would  have 
crowned  Titus  as  conqueror  ;  but  he  modestly  refused  the 
honour,  alleging,  that  he  was  only  an  instrument  in  the 
hand  of  heaven,  that  manifestly  declared  its  wrath  against 
the  Jews.  2.  .At  Rome,  however,  all  men's  mouths  were 
filled  with  the  praises  of  the  conqueror,  who  had  not  only 
showed  himself  an  excellent  general,  but  a  courageous  com- 
batant. His  return,  therefore,  in  triumph,  with  Vespa'sian 
his  father,  was  marked  with  all  the  magnificence  and  joy  in 
the  power  of  men  to  express.  All  things  that  were  es- 
teemed valuable  or  beautiful  were  brought  to  adorn  this 
great  occasion.  3.  Among  the  rich  spoils  were  exposed 
vast  quantities  of  gold,  taken  out  of  the  temple ;  but  the 
Book  of  the  Holy  Law  was  not  the  least  remarkable  among 
the  magnificent  profusion.  4.  This  was  the  first  time  that 
ever  Rome  saw  the  father  and  the  son  triumphant  together. 
A  triumphal  arch  was  erected  upon  this  occasion,  on  which 
were  described  the  victories  of  Titus  over  the  Jews  ;  and  it 
remains  almost  entire  to  this  day. 


04  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

5.  Few  emperors  have  received  a  better  character  from 
historians  than  Vespasian  ;  yet  his  numerous  acts  of  gene- 
rosity and  magnificence  could   not  preserve   his  character 
from  the  imputation  of  rapacity  and  avarice ;  for  it  is  well 
known  that  he  descended  to  some  very  unusual  and  dis- 
honourable imposts. 

6.  Having  reigned  ten  years,  beloved  by  his  subjects,  and 
deserving  their  affection,  he  was  seized  with  an  indisposition 
at  Campa'nia,  which  he  perceived  would  be  fatal.    7.  Find- 
ing his  end  approaching,  he  exerted  himself,  and  cried  out, 
"  An  emperor  ought  to  die  standing ;"  whereupon,  raising 
himself  upon  his  feet,  he  expired  in  the  arms  of  those  who 
sustained  him. 

8.  Titus  was  joyfully  received  as  emperor,  and  began  his 
A.  D.  }  reign  with  the  practice  of  every  virtue  that  became 
79.  5  a  sovereign  and  a  man.  During  the  life  of  his 
father,  there  had  been  many  imputations  against  him  both 
for  cruelty,  lust,  and  prodigality  ;  but  upon  his  exaltation  to 
the  throne,  he  seemed  to  have  entirely  taken  leave  of  his 
former  vices,  and  became  an  example  of  the  greatest  mode- 
ration and  humanity.  9.  His  first  step  towards  gaining  the 
affections  of  his  subjects,  was  the  moderating  of  his  pas- 
sions, and  bridling  his  inclinations.  10.  He  discarded  those 
who  had  been  the  ministers  of  his  pleasures,  though  he 
had  formerly  taken  great  pains  in  the  selection.  11.  This 
moderation,  added  to  his  justice  and  generosity,  procured 
him  the  love  of  all  good  men,  and  the  appellation  of  the 
Delight  of  Mankind;  which  all  his  actions  seemed  calcu- 
lated to  insure. 

12.  Ti'tus  took  particular  care  to  punish  all  informers, 
false  witnesses,  and  promoters  of  dissension.  Wretches 
who  had  their  rise  in  the  licentiousness  and  impunity  of 
former  reigns,  were  now  become  so  numerous,  that  their 
crimes  called  loud  for  punishment.  13.  Of  these  he  daily 
made  public  example,  condemning  them  to  be  scourged  in 
the  public  streets,  dragged  through  the  theatre,  and  then 
banished  into  the  uninhabited  parts  of  the  empire,  or  sold 
as  slaves.  14.  His  courtesy  and  readiness  to  do  good  have 
been  celebrated  even  by  Christian  writers ;  his  principal 
rule  being,  not  to  send  away  a  petitioner  dissatisfied.  One 
night,  recollecting  that  he  had  done  nothing  beneficial  to 
mankind  during  the  day,  he  cried  out,  "  I  have  lost  a  day  !" 
A  sentence  too  remarkable  not  to  be  had  in  remembrance. 

15.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  an  eruption  of  Mount 


THE    EMPIRE.  305 

Vesu'vius  overwhelmed  many  towns,*  throwing  its  ashes 
into  countries  more  than  a  hundred  miles  distant.  Upon 
this  memorable  occasion,  Pliny,  the  naturalist,  lost  his  life  ; 
being  impelled  by  too  eager  a  curiosity  to  observe  the  erup- 
tion, he  was  suffocated  in  the  flames.  16.  This  and  other 
disasters  were,  in  some  measure,  counterbalanced  by  the 
successes  in  Britain,  under  Agrico'la.  This  excellent  gene- 
ral, having  been  sent  into  Britain  towards  the  latter  end  of 
Vespasian's  reign,  showed  himself  equally  expert  in  quell- 
ing the  refractory,  and  civilizing  those  who  had  formerly 
submitted  to  the  Roman  power.  17.  The  Ordovi'ces,  or 
inhabitants  of  North  Wales,  were  the  first  that  were  sub- 
dued. He  then  made  a  descent  upon  the  isle  of  An'gle- 
sey,  which  surrendered  at  discretion.  18.  Having  thus  ren- 
dered himself  master  of  the  whole  country,  he  took  every 
method  to  restore  discipline  to  his  whole  army,  and  to  in- 
troduce politeness  among  those  whom  he  had  conquered. 
He  exhorted  them,  both  by  advice  and  example,  to  build 
temples,  theatres,  and  stately  houses.  He  caused  the  sons 
of  their  nobility  to  be  instructed  in  the  liberal  arts,  and  to 
be  taught  the  Latin  language  ;  and  induced  them  to  imitate 
the  Roman  modes  of  dress  and  living.  19.  Thus,  by  de- 
grees, this  barbarous  people  began  to  assume  the  luxurious 

*  Hcrcula'neum,  Pompe'ii,  &c.  This  eruption  happened  August 
21,  A.  D.  79.  These  towns,  after  having  been  buried  under  the  lava 
for  more  than  1600  years,  were  discovered  in  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century:  Hercula'neum,  in  1713,  about  24  feet  under  ground,  by  la- 
bourers digging  a  well,  and  Pompe'ii  40  years  after,  about  12  feet  below 
the  surface ;  and  from  the  houses  and  streets  which,  in  a  great  measure, 
remain  perfect,  have  been  drawn  busts,  statues,  manuscripts,  paintings, 
&c.  which  contribute  much  to  enlarge  our  notions  concerning  the  an- 
cients, and  develope  many  classical  obscurities.  (Mala.)  In  the  year 
following  this  dreadful  eruption,  a  fire  happened  at  Rome,  which  con- 
sumed the  capitol,  the  pantheon,  the  library  of  Augustus,  the  theatre 
of  Pompey,  and  a  great  many  other  buildings.  In  the  ruins  of  Hercu- 
la'neum rain  li;ive  lately  been  found  loaves  which  were  baked  under 
the  reign  of  Titus,  and  which  still  bear  the  baker's  mark,  indicating  the 
quality  of  the  flour,  which  was  probably  prescribed  by  the  regulation  of 
the  police.  There  have  also  been  found  utensils  of  bronze,  which,  in- 
stead of  being  tinned,  like  ours,  arc  all  silvered  ;  the  ancients  doubtless 
preferred  this  method,  as  more  wholesome  and  more  durable.  The  ex- 
cavations at  Pompe'ii  continue  to  furnish  the  royal  museum  at  Naplea 
with  all  kinds  of  valuable  objects:  some  buildings  have  lately  been 
discovered  at  Pompe'ii,  remarkable  for  the  richness  of  their  architecture. 
At  Paggo'ia,  another  town  buried  by  the  lava  from  Vesuvius,  some 
icpulchres  have  been  found,  which  are  stated  to  be  magnificently 
adorned  with  sculpture  of  the  finest  kind. 
2  c  2 


306  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

manners  of  their  conquerors,  and  even  to  outdo  them  in  all 
the  refinements  of  sensual  pleasure.  20.  Upon  account  of 
the  successes  in  Britain,  Titus  was  saluted  Impera'tor*  for 
the  fifteenth  time  ;  but  he  did  not  long  survive  this  honour, 
being  seized  with  a  violent  fever  at  a  little  distance  from 
Rome.  He  expired  shortly  after,  but  not  without  suspicion 
of  treachery  from  his  brother  Domi'tian,  who  had  long 
wished  to  govern.  He  died  in  the  forty-first  year  of  his  age, 
having  reigned  two  years,  two  months,  and  twenty  days. 

21.  The  beginning  of  Domi'tian's  reign  was  universally 
A.  D.  }  acceptable  to  the  people,  as  he  appeared  equally 
81.  )  remarkable  for  his  clemency,  liberality  and  jus- 
tice.t  22.  But  he  soon  began  to  show  the  natural  deformity 
of  his  mind.  Instead  of  cultivating  literature,  as  his  father  and 
brother  had  done,  he  neglected  all  kinds  of  study,  addicting 
himself  wholly  to  meaner  pursuits,  particularly  archery  and 
gaming.  23.  He  was  so  very  expert  an  archer,  that  he  would 
frequently  cause  one  of  his  slaves  to  stand  at  a  great  dis- 
tance, with  his  hand  spread  as  a  mark,  and  would  shoot  his 
arrows  with  such  exactness,  as  to  stick  them  all  between 
his  fingers.  24.  He  instituted  three  sorts  of  contests  to  be 
observed  every  five  years,  in  music,  horsemanship  and 
wrestling ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  banished  all  philoso- 
phers and  mathematicians  from  Rome.  25.  No  emperor 
before  him  entertained  the  people  with  such  various  and  ex- 
pensive shows.  During  these  diversions  he  distributed  great 
rpwards,  sitting  as  president  himself,  adorned  with  a  purple 
robe  and  crown,  with  the  priests  of  Ju'piter,  and  the  col- 
lege of  Fla'vian  priests  about  him.  26.  The  meanness  of 
his  occupations  in  solitude,  was  a  just  contrast  to  his  exhi- 
bitions of  public  ostentation.  He  usually  spent  his  hours 
of  retirement  in  catching  flies,  and  sticking  them  through 
with  a  bodkin ;  so  that  one  of  his  servants,  being  asked  if 
the  emperor  Avere  alone,  answered,  that  he  had  not  so  much 
as  a  fly  to  bear  him  company.  27.  His  vices  seemed  every 
day  to  increase,  and  his  ungrateful  treatment  of  Agrico'la 
afforded  a  convincing  proof  of  his  natural  malevolence.  28. 

*  Impera'tor,  a  title  of  honour  among  the  Romans,  conferred  on  vic- 
torious generals  by  their  armies,  and  afterwards'by  the  senate. 

f  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  most  odious  tyrants  that  ever  sat  on 
the  Roman  throne,  commenced  their  reigns  with  a  display  of  all  the 
virtues  that  adorn  humanity :  on  the  contrary,  Augustus,  who  was  truly 
the  father  of  his  people,  began  his  reign  with  cruelties  that  afforded  but 
a  melancholy  presage  of  his  future  administration. 


THE    EMPIRE.  307 

Domi'tian  was  always  particularly  fond  of  obtaining  a  mill  " 
tary  reputation,  and  therefore  felt  jealous  of  it  in  others 
He  had  marched  some  time  before  into  Gaul,  upon  a  pre- 
tended expedition  against  the  Catti,  a  people  of  Germany, 
and  without  even  seeing  the  enemy,  resolved  to  have  the 
honour  of  a  triumph  upon  his  return  to  Rome.  For  that 
purpose  he  purchased  a  number  of  slaves,  whom  he  dressed 
in  German  habits,  and  at  the  head  of  this  miserable  pro- 
cession he  entered  the  city,  amid  the  apparent  acclamations 
and  concealed  contempt  of  all  his  subjects. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  did  Titus  conduct  himself  after  this  important  conquest! 

2.  How  was  he  received  at  Rome  ! 

3.  What  were  the  most  remarkable  among  the  spoils! 

4.  What  peculiarity  attended  this  triumph! 

5.  What  was  the  character  of  Vespasian ! 

6.  How  many  years  did  Vespasian  reign ! 

7.  Did  he  not  display  great  resolution  at  the  hour  of  death  ? 

8.  How  did  Titus  commence  his  reign  ! 

9.  By  what  means  did  he  gain  the  love  of  his  subjects! 

10.  What  sacrifices  did  he  make  for  this  purpose  ! 

11.  Did  he  succeed  in  his  views! 

12.  What  class  of  delinquents  met  his  most  decided  disapprobation  ! 

13.  What  punishment  was  inflicted  on  them ! 

14.  WhaJ  were  his  chief  virtues ! 

15.  What  remarkable  event  occurred  in  this  reigu,  and  what  eminent 

personage  became  its  victim ! 

16.  By  what  successes  was  this  disaster  counterbalanced! 

17.  What  were  his  first  enterprizes! 

1R.  What  methods  did  he  take  to  civilize  the  conquered  countries! 

1 9.  Were  his  measures  successful ! 

20.  Did  Titus  long  enjoy  the  glory  of  this  conquest ! 

21.  How  did  Domitian  commence  his  reign  ! 

22.  Did  he  persevere  in  his  meritorious  conduct! 

23.  In  what  exercise  did  he  excel ! 

24.  Did  he  encourage  the  arts  and  sciences  ! 

25.  Was  he  magnificent  in  his  exhibitions ! 

26.  How  did  he  employ  himself  in  private  ! 

27.  Did  time  render  him  less  vicious  ! 

28.  By  what  means  did  he  attempt  tc  acquire  military  fame  ! 


308  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


SECTION  XI. 

1.  THE  success  of  Agric'ola  in  Britain  affected  Domit'ian, 
with  an  extreme  degree  of  envy.  This  excellent  general 
pursued  the  advantages  which  he  had  already  obtained ;  he 
subdued  the  Caledo'nians,  and  overcame  Gal'gacus,  the 
British  chief,  who  commanded  an  army  of  thirty  thousand 
men ;  afterwards  sending  out  a  fleet  to  scour  the  coast,  he 
discovered  Great  Britain  to  be  an  island.  He  likewise  dis- 
covered and  subdued  the  Orkneys  ;  and  thus  reduced  the 
whole  into  a  civilized  province  of  the  Roman  empire.  2. 
When  the  account  of  these  successes  was  brought  to  Do- 
mitian,  he  received  it  with  a  seeming  pleasure,  but  rea} 
uneasiness.  He  thought  Agric'ola's  rising  reputation  a  tacit 
reproach  upon  his  own  inactivity ;  and  instead  of  attempting 
to  emulate,  he  resolved  to  suppress  the  merits  of  his  ser- 
vices. 3.  He  ordered  him,  therefore,  external  marks  of 
approbation,  and  took  care  that  triumphal  ornaments,  statues, 
and  other  honours  should  be  decreed  him  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  he  removed  him  from  his  command,  under  a  pretence 
of  appointing  him  to  the  government  of  Syria.  4.  By  these 
means  Agric'ola  surrendered  up  his  province  to  Sallus'tius 
Lucul'lus,  but  soon  found  that  Syria  was  otherwise  disposed 
of.  Upon  his  return  to  Rome,  which  was  privately  and  by 
night,  he  was  coolly  received  by  the  emperor ;  and  dying 
some  time  after  in  retirement,  it  was  generally  supposed 
that  his  end  was  hastened  by  Domi'tian's  direction. 

5.  Domi'tian  soon  found  the  want  of  so  experienced  a 
commander,  in  the  many  irruptions  of  the  barbarous  nations 
that  surrounded  the  empire.  The  Sarma'tians  in  Europe, 
joined  with  those  of  Asia,  made  a  formidable  invasion,  at 
once  destroying  a  whole  legion,  and  a  general  of  the  Romans. 
The  Da'cians,  under  the  conduct  of  Dece'balus,  their  king, 
made  an  irruption,  and  overthrew  the  Romans  in  several 
engagements.  6.  At  last,  however,  the  barbarians  were 
repelled,  partly  by  force,  and  partly  by  the  assistance  of 
money,  which  only  served  to  enable  them  to  make  future 
invasions  with  greater  advantage.  7.  But  in  whatever  man- 
ner the  enemy  might  have  been  repelled,  Domi'tian  was 
resolved  not  to  lose  the  honours  of  a  triumph.  He  returned 
in  great  splendour  to  Rome ;  and,  not  contented  with  thus 
triumphing  twice  without  a  victory,  he  resolved  to  take  the 


THE   EMPIRE.  3(J9 

surname  of  German'icus,  for  his  conquests  over  a  people 
with  whom  he  never  contended. 

8.  In  proportion  as  the  ridicule  increased  against  him,  his 
pride  seemed  every  day  to  demand  greater  homage.  He 
would  permit  his  statues  to  he  made  only  of  gold  and  silver  ; 
he  assumed  to  himself  divine  honours ;  and  ordered  that  all 
men  should  address  him  by  the  same  appellations  which 
they  gave  to  the  Divinity.  9.  His  cruelty  was  not  inferior 
to  his  arrogance  ;  he  caused  numbers  of  the  most  illustrious 
senators  and  others  to  be  put  to  death,  upon  the  most  trifling 
pretences.  One  ^E'lius  La'ma  was  condemned  and  executed 
only  for  jesting,  though  there  was  neither  novelty  nor 
poignancy  in  his  humour.  Occea'nus  was  murdered  only  for 
celebrating  the  nativity  of  O'tho.  Pomposia'nus  shared  the 
same  fate,  because  it  was  foretold  by  an  astrologer  that  he 
should  be  emperor.  Sallus'tius  Lucul'lus  his  lieutenant  in 
Britain,  was  destroyed  only  for  having  given  his  name  to  a 
new  sort  of  lances  of  his  own  invention.  Ju'nius  Rus'ti- 
cus  died  for  publishing  a  book,  in  which  he  commended 
Thra'sea  and  Pris'cus,  two  philosophers,  who  opposed 
Vespa'sian's  coming  to  the  throne. 

10.  Lu'cius  Anto'nius,  governor  of  Upper  Germany, 
knowing  how  much  the  emperor  was  detested  at  home,  re- 
solved upon  striking  for  the  throne ;  and  accordingly  as- 
sumed the  ensigns  of  imperial  dignity.  11.  As  he  was  at 
the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  his  success  remained  a  long 
time  doubtful ;  but  a  sudden  overflow  of  the  Rhine  dividing 
his  army,  he  was  set  upon  at  that  juncture  by  Norman'dus, 
the  emperor's  general,  and  totally  routed.  The  news  of  this 
victory,  we  are  told,  was  brought  to  Rome  by  supernatural 
means,  on  the  same  day  that  the  battle  was  fought.  12. 
Domi'tian's  severity  was  greatly  increased  by  this  short- 
lived success.  In  order  to  discover  the  accomplices  of  the 
adverse  party,  he  invented  new  tortures  :  sometimes  cutting 
off  the  hands — at  other  limes  thrusting  fire  into  the  bodies 
of  those  whom  he  suspected  of  being  his  enemies.  13.  In 
the  midst  of  these  severities,  he  aggravated  his  guilt  by  hy- 
pocrisy— never  pronouncing  sentence  without  a  preamble 
full  of  gentleness  and  mercy.  The  night  before  he  crucified 
the  comptroller  of  his  household,  he  treated  him  with  the 
most  flattering  marks  of  friendship,  and  ordered  him  a  dish 
of  meat  from  his  own  table.  He  carried  Areti'nus  Cle'mons 
with  him  in  his  own  litter  the  day  he  resolved  upon  his 
death.  14.  He  was  particularly  terrible  to  the  senate  ana 


310  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

nobility,  the  whole  body  of  whom  he  frequently  threat- 
ened to  extirpate  entirely.  At  one  time  he  surrounded  the 
senate-house  with  his  troops,  to  the  great  consternation  of 
the  senators.  At  another,  he  resolved  to  amuse  himself 
with  their  terrors  in  a  different  manner.  15.  Having  invited 
them  to  a  public  entertainment,  he  received  them  all  very 
formally  at  the  entrance  of  his  palace,  and  conducted  them 
into  a  spacious  hall,  hung  round  with  black,  and  illuminated 
by  a  few  melancholy  lamps,  that  diffused  no  more  light  than 
was  just  sufficient  to  show  the  horrors  of  the  place.  All 
around  were  to  be  seen  coffins,  with  the  names  of  each  of 
the  senators  written  upon  them,  together  with  other  objects 
of  terror,  and  instruments  of  execution.  16.  While  the 
company  beheld  all  these  preparations  with  silent  agony, 
several  men  having  their  bodies  blackened,  each  with  a 
drawn  sword  in  one  hand,  and  a  flaming  torch  in  the  other, 
entered  the  halt,  and  danced  round  them.  17.  After  some 
time,  when,  from  the  knowledge  of  Domi'tian's  capricious 
cruelty,  the  guests  expected  nothing  less  than  instant  death, 
the  doors  were  set  open,  and  one  of  the  servants  came  to 
inform  them,  that  the  emperor  gave  all  the  company  leave 
to  withdraw. 

18.  His  cruelties  were  rendered  still  more  odious  by  his 
avarice.  19.  The  last  part  of  the  tyrant's  reign  was  more 
insupportable  than  any  of  the  preceding.  Ne'ro  exercised 
his  cruelties  without  being  a  spectator ;  but  a  principal  part 
of  the  Roman  miseries,  during  his  reign,  was  to  behold 
the  stern  air  and  fiery  visage  of  the  tyrant,  which  he  had 
armed  against  sensibility  by  continued  intemperance,  direct- 
ing the  tortures,  and  maliciously  pleased  with  adding 
poignance  to  every  agony. 

20.  But  a  period  was  soon  to  be  put  to  this  monster's 
cruelties.  Among  the  number  of  those  whom  he  at  once 
caressed  and  suspected,  was  his  wife,  Domi'tia,  •whom  he 
had  taken  from  ^E'lius  La'ma,  her  former  husband.  21.  It 
was  the  tyrant's  method  to  put  down  the  names  of  all  such 
as  he  intended  to  destroy,  in  his  tablets,  which  he  kept 
about  him  with  great  circumspection.  Domi'tia  fortunately 
happening  to  get  a  sight  of  them,  was  struck  at  finding  her 
own  name  in  the  catalogue  of  those  destined  to  destruction. 
22.  She  showed  the  fatal  list  to  Norba'nus  and  Petro'nius, 
prefects  of  the  prretorian  bands,  who  found  themselves 
among  the  numbev  of  devoted  victims ;  as  likewise  to 
Steph'anus,  the  comptroller  of  the  household,  who  came 


THE    EMPIRE.  311 

into  the  conspiracy  with  alacrity.  They  fixed  upon  lire 
eighteenth  day  of  September  for  the  completion  of  their 
great  attempt.  23.  Upon  the  emperor's  preparing  to  go  to 
the  bath  on  the  morning  of  that  day,  Petro'nius  his  cham- 
berlain came  to  inform  him  that  Steph'anus  desired  to  speak 
upon  an  affair  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  emperor  hav- 
ing given  orders  that  his  attendants  should  retire,  Steph'anus 
entered  with  his  hand  in  a  scarf,  which  he  had  worn  thus 
for  some  days,  the  better  to  conceal  a  dagger,  as  none  were 
permitted  to  approach  the  emperor  with  arms.  24.  He  be- 
gan by  giving  information  of  a  pretended  conspiracy,  and 
t.xhibited  a  paper,  in  which  the  particulars  were  specified. 
While  Domi'tian  was  reading  the  contents  with  eager  curi- 
osity, Steph'anus  drew  his  dagger  and  struck  him  with  much 
violence  ;  but  the  wound  not  being  mortal,  Domi'tian  caught 
hold  of  the  assassin  and  threw  him  upon  the  ground,  calling 
out  for  assistance.  But  Parthe'niusvSvith  his  freedman,  a 
gladiator,  and  two  subaltern  officers,  now  coming  in,  they 
ran  furiously  upon  the  emperor  and  dispatched  him:  Steph'- 
anus, however,  was  slain  by  the  guards,  but  the  other  con- 
spirators escaped  in  the  tumult. 

25.  It  is  rather  incredible,  what  some  writers  relate  con- 
cerning Apollo'nius  Tyane'us,  who  was  then  at  Ephesus. 
This  person,  whom  some  call  a  magician,  and  some  a  phi- 
losopher, but  who  more  probably  was  only  an  impostor, 
was,  just  at  the  minute  in  which  Domi'tian  was  slain,  lee 
turing  in  one  of  the  public  gardens  of  the  city  ;  but  stopping 
short,  on  a  sudden  he  cried  out,   "  Courage,  Steph'anus, 
strike  the  tyrant !"  then,  after  a  pause,  "  Rejoice,  my  friends, 
the  tyrant  dies  this  day ; — this   day  do  I  say  ? — the  very 
moment  in  which  I  kept  silence  he  suffered  for  his  crimes ! 
He  dies !" 

26.  Many  prodigies  are  said  to  have  portended  his  death; 
and  if  the  Roman  historians  are  to  be  credited,  more  preter- 
natural appearances  and  predictions  announced  this  event, 
than  its  importance  deserved.*     The  truth  seems  to  be,  thai 
a  belief  in  omens  and  prodigies  was  again  become  prevalent, 
as  the   people  were  evidently  relapsing  into  pristine  bar- 
oarity,  ignorance  being  ever  the  proper  soil  for  a  harvest  of 
imposture. 

*  In  the  reign  of  Domi'tian,  a  violent  persecution  raged  against  the 
Christians.  During  this  persecution  St.  John  was  confined  to  the  Isle 
of  Patmos,  in  the  Archipelago,  where  he  wrote  the  Apoc'alypse,  or  Ko- 
velation. 


312  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  advantages  did  Agricola  gain  in  Britain  1 

2.  How  did  Domitian  receive  the  account  of  Agricola's  success  1 

3.  In  what  way  did  the  emperor  treat  him  ? 

4.  To  whom  did  Agricola  surrender  up  his  province  ? 

5.  What  Rations  afterwards  made  irruptions  into  the  Roman  provit 

cesl 

6.  By  what  means  were  the  barbarians  at  length  repelled  ? 

7.  What  surname  did  Domitian  assume  1 

8.  To  what  extravagance  did  his  pride  lead  him  1 

9.  What  trifling  pretexts  were  made  use  of  by  Domitian  to  put  to 

death  some  of  the  most  illustrious  Romans 

10.  Who  now  assumed  the  ensigns  of  the  imperial  dignity  1 

1 1.  By  what  general  was  Lucius  Antonius  defeated  1 

12.  What  new  cruelties  were  resorted  to  by  the  emperor  1 

1 3.  By  what  hypocritical  conduct  was  he  distinguished  1 

14.  To  whom  was  he  particularly  terrible  ? 

15.  16,  17.  What  terrific  ceremonies  did  he  invent  on  one  occasion  1 

18.  Was  the  result  fatal  to  them  1 

19.  Did  not  his  cruelties  become  still  more  insupportable  at  the  latter 

part  of  his  reign  1 

20.  Who  was  among  the  number  that  he  at  the  same  time  caressed  and 

suspected  1 

21.  Whose  name  did  Domitia  discover  among  his  list  of  victims? 

22.  To  whom  did  she  show  the  fatal  list,  and  what  was  resolved  on  ? 

23.  What  means  were  used  by  Stephanus  to  assassinate  the  emperor  1 

24.  Relate  the  particulars  of  the  assassination. 

25.  What  exclamation  is  Apollonius  Tyaneus  said  to  have  made  at 

Ephesus,  at  the  time  of  Domitian's  death  1 

26.  Did  not  the  Romans  relapse,  into  their  pristine  state  of  barbarity 

bout  this  period  1 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

SECTION  L 

THE    FIVE    GOOD    EMPERORS    OF    ROME. 

1.  WHEN  it  was  publicly  known  that  Domi'tian*  was  slain, 
the  senate  began  to  load  his  memory  with  every  reproach 
His  statues  were  commanded  to  be  taken  down,  and  a  de- 
cree was  made,  that  all  his  inscriptions  should  be  erased, 
his  name  struck  out  of  the  registers  of  fame,  and  his  funeral 

*  Domi'tian  was  the  last  of  those  emperors  commonly  called   the 
Twelve  CjEsars. 


THE    EMPIRE.  313 

obsequies  omitted.  2.  The  people,  who  now  took  but  lit- 
tle part  in  the  aflairs  of  government,  looked  on  his  death 
with  indifference ;  the  soldiers  alone,  whom  he  had  loaded 
with  favours,  and  enriched  by  largesses,  sincerely  regretted 
their  benefactor. 

3  The  senate,  therefore,  resolved  to  provide  a  successor 
before  the  army  could  have  an  opportunity  of  taking  the  ap- 
pointment upon  itself,  and  Cocce'ius  Ner'va  was  chosen  to 
the  empire  the  same  day  on  which  the  tyrant  was  slain.  4- 
He  is  said  to  have  been  of  an  illustrious  family  in  Spain, 
and  above  sixty-five  years  old  when  he  was  called  to  the 
throne,  an  elevation  which  he  owed  solely  to  his  virtues, 
moderation,  respect  to  the  laws,  and  the  blameless  tenor  of 
his  life. 

5.  The  people,  long  accustomed  to  tyranny,  regarded 
Nerva's  gentle  reign  with  rapture,  and  even  gave  to  his  im- 
becility (for  his  humanity  was  carried  too  far  for  justice)  the 
name  of  benevolence.  6.  Upon  coining  to  the  throne  he 
solemnly  swore,  that  no  senator  of  Rome  should  be  put  to 
death  by  his  command  during  his  reign,  though  guilty  of  the 
most  heinous  c-imes.  7.  This  oath  he  so  religiously  ob- 
served, that  when  two  senators  had  conspired  his  death,  he 
used  no  kind  of  severity  against  them ;  but,  sending  for 
them  to  let  them  see  he  was  not  ignorant  of  their  designs, 
he  carried  them  with  him  to  the  public  theatre ;  there  pre- 
senting each  a  dagger,  he  desired  them  to  strike,  assuring 
them  that  he  should  make  no  resistance.  8.  He  had  so  lit- 
tle regard  for  money,  that  when  one  of  his  subjects  found  a 
large  treasure,  and  wrote  to  the  emperor  for  instructions  how 
to  dispose  of  it,  he  received  for  answer,  that  he  might  use 
it ;  the  finder  however  replying,  that  it  was  a  fortune  too 
large  for  a  private  person  to  use,  Nerva,  admiring  his  hon- 
esty, wrote  him  word  that  then  he  might  abuse  it.* 

9.  A  sovereign  of  such  generosity  and  mildness  was  not, 
however,  without  his  enemies.  Vigil'ius  Ru'fus,  who  had 
opposed  his  accession,  was  not  only  pardoned,  but  made  his 
colleague  in  the  consulship.  Calpur'nius  Cras'sus  also, 
with  some  others,  formed  a  conspiracy  to  destroy  him  ;  but 
Nerva  was  satisfied  with  banishing  those  who  were  culpa- 
ble, though  the  senate  were  for  inflicting  more  rigorous 
punishments.  10.  But  the  most  dangerous  insurrection  was 

j^^p 

*  Nerva,  the  most  remarkable  man  in  Rome  for  bin  virtues,  recalled 
all  the  Christians  who  had  been  banished  or  had  emigrated  under  tin 
persecution  of  Domi'tian. 

2D 


314  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

that  of  the  praetorian  bands,  who,  headed  by  Caspa'rius 
Olia'nus,  insisted  upon  revenging  the  late  emperor's  death, 
•whose  memory  was  still  dear  to  them,  from  his  frequent 
liberalities.  11.  Nerva,  whose  kindness  to  good  men  ren- 
dered him  more  obnoxious  to  the  vicious,  did  all  in  his 
power  to  stop  the  progress  of  this  insurrection  ;  he  presented 
himself  to  the  mutinous  soldiers,  and  laying  bare  his  bosom, 
desired  them  to  strike  there  rather  than  be  guilty  of  so  much 
injustice.  12.  The  soldiers,  however,  paid  no  regard  to  his 
remonstrances  ;  but  seizing  upon  Petro'nius  and  Parthe'nius, 
slew  them  in  the  most  ignominious  manner.  Not  content 
with  this,  they  even  compelled  the  emperor  to  approve  of 
their  sedition,  and  to  make  a  speech  to  the  people,  in  which 
he  thanked  the  cohorts  for  their  fidelity. 

13.  So  disagreeable  a  constraint  upon  the  emperor's  in- 
clinations was  in  the  end  attended  with  the  most  happy 
effects,  as  it  caused  the  adoption  of  Trajan*  to  succeed  him ; 
for,  perceiving  that  in  the  present  turbulent  disposition  of 
the  times,  he  stood  in  need  of  an  assistant  in  the  empire, 
setting  aside  all  his  own  relations,  he  fixed  upon  Ul'pius 
Tra'jan,  an  utter  stranger  to  his  family,  who  was  then  go- 
vernor in  Upper  Germany,  as  his  successor.  14.  About 
three  months  after  this,  having  put  himself  into  a  violent 
passion  with  one  Reg'ulus,  a  senator,  he  was  seized  with  a 
fever  of  which  he  died,  after  a  reign  of  one  year,  four  months, 
and  nine  days. 

15.  He  was  the  first  foreigner  that  ever  reigned  in  Rome, 
and  justly  reputed  a  prince  of  great  generosity  and  modera- 
tion.    He  is  also  celebrated  for  his  wisdom,  though  with 
less  reason  ;  the  greatest  instance  given  of  it  during   his 
reign,  being  the  choice  of  his  successor. 

16.  On  hearing  of  the  death  of  Nerva,  Trajan  prepared 
v.  c.  851.?     to  come  to  Rome  from  Germany,  where  he 
A.  D.  98.  5     was  governor.     He  received  upon  his  arrival 
a  letter  from  Plu'tarch,  the  philosopher,  who  had  the  honour 
of  being  his  master,  to   the    following   purport : — "  Since 
your  merits  and  not  your  importunities,  nave  advanced  you 
to  the  empire,  permit  me  to  congratulate  you  on  your  vir- 
tues, and  my  own  good  fortune.    If  your  future  government 

*  It  was  customary  among  the  Romans,  for  a  person  destitute  of  a 
son  to  adopt  one  from  another  family  ;  and  the  son  thus  adopted  became 
immediately  invested  with  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  if  he  had 
been  bom  to  that  station ;  but  he  had  no  longer  any  claim  on  the  family 
to  which  he  originally  belonged. 


THE    EMPIRE.  915 

proves  answerable  to  your  former  worth,  I  shall  be  happy"; 
but  if  you  become  worse  for  power,  yours  will  be  the  dan- 
ger, and  mine  the  ignominy  of  your  conduct.  The  error* 
of  the  pupil  will  be  charged  upon  his  instructor.  Sen'eca 
is  reproached  for  the  enormities  of  Nero  ;  and  Soc 'rates  and 
Quintil'ian  have  not  escaped  censure  for  the  misconduct  of 
their  respective  scholars.  But  you  have  it  in  your  power  to 
make  me  the  most  honoured  of  men,  by  continuing  what 
you  are.  Retain  the  command  of  your  passions  ;  and  make 
virtue  the  rule  of  all  your  actions.  If  you  follow  these  in- 
structions, then  will  I  glory  in  having  presumed  to  give 
them  :  if  you  neglect  what  I  advise,  then  will  this  letter  be 
my  testimony  that  you  have  not  erred  through  the  counsel 
and  authority  of  Plu'tarch."  I  insert  this  letter,  because  it 
is  a  striking  picture  of  this  great  philosopher's  manner  of 
addressing  the  best  of  princes. 

17.  This    good    monarch's    application  to  business,  his 
moderation  towards  his  enemies,  his  modesty  in  exaltation, 
his  liberality  to  the  deserving,  and  his  frugal  management 
of  the  resources  of  the  state,  were  the  subjects  of  panegyric 
among  his  contemporaries,  and  continue  to  be  the  admira- 
tion of  posterity. 

18.  The  first  war  he  was  engaged  in  after  his  coming  to 
the  throne  was  with  the  Da'cians,  who,  during  the  reign  of 
Domi'tian,  had  committed  numberless  ravages  upon  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  empire.    To  revenge  these,  he  raised  a  power- 
ful army,  and  with  great  expedition  marched  into  those  bar- 
barous countries,  where  he  was  vigorously  opposed  by  De- 
ceb'alus,  the  Da'cian  king,  who  for  some  time  withstood  his 
boldest  efforts.    19.  At  length,  however,  this  monarch  being 
constrained  to  come  to  a  general  battle,  and  no  longer  able 
to  protract  the  war,  was  routed  with  great  slaughter.     The 
Roman  soldiers  upon  this  occasion  wanting  linen  to  bind  up 
their  wounds,  the  emperor  tore  his  own  robes  to  supply 
them.     20.  This  victory  compelled  the  enemy  to  sue  for 
peace,    which    they   obtained   upon    very    disadvantageous 
terms ;  their  king  coming  into  the  Roman  camp,  and  ac- 
knowledging himself  a  vassal  of  the  Roman  empire. 

21.  Upon  Trajan's  return,  after  the  usual  triumphs  and 
rejoicings,  he  was  surprised  with  an  account  that  the  Da'- 
cians had  renewed  hostilities.  Deceb'alus,  their  king,  was 
a  second  time  adjudged  an  enemy  to  the  Roman  state,  and 
Tra'jan  again  entered  his  dominions.  22.  In  order  to  be 
enabled  to  invade  the  enemy's  territories  at  pleasure,  he  un- 


316  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

dertook  a  most  stupendous  work,  which  was  no  less  than 
building  a  bridge  across  the  Dan'ube.  23.  This  amazing 
structure,  which  was  built  over  a  deep,  broad,  and  rapid 
river,  consisted  of  more  than  twenty-two  arches  ;  the  ruins, 
which  remain  to  this  day,  show  modern  architects  how  far 
they  were  surpassed  by  the  ancients,  both  in  the  greatness 
and  boldness  of  their  designs.  24.  Upon  finishing  this 
work,  Trajan  continued  the  war  with  great  vigour,  sharing 
with  the  meanest  of  his  soldiers  the  fatigues  of  the  cam- 
paign, and  continually  encouraging  them  to  their  duty  by  his 
own  example.  25.  By  these  means,  notwithstanding  the 
country  was  spacious  and  uncultivated,  and  the  inhabitants 
brave  and  hardy,  he  subdued  the  whole,  and  added  the 
kingdom  of  Da'cia  as  a  province  to  the  Roman  empire.  De- 
ceb'alus  made  some  attempts  to  escape ;  but  being  sur- 
rounded, he  slew  himself.  26.  These  successes  seemed  to 
advance  the  ompire  to  a  greater  degree  of  splendor  than  it 
had  hitherto  acquired.  Ambassadors  came  from  the  inte- 
rior parts  of  India,  to  congratulate  Trajan  on  his  successes, 
and  solicit  his  friendship.  On  his  return,  he  entered  Rome 
in  triumph,  and  the  rejoicings  for  his  victories  lasted  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty  days. 

27.  Having  given  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  empire,  he 
was  loved,  honoured,  and  almost  adored.  He  adorned  the 
city  with  public  buildings ;  he  freed  it  from  such  men  as 
lived  by  their  vices  ;  he  entertained  persons  of  merit  with 
familiarity ;  and  so  little  did  he  fear  his  enemies,  that  he 
could  scarcely  be  induced  to  suppose  he  had  any. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  was  the  account  of  Domitian's  death  received? 

2.  Was  he  regretted  by  any  description  of  his  subjects  ? 

3.  What  consequences  ensued  from  this  regret  1 

4.  Who  was  Cocceius  Nerva  1 

5.  Was  his  government  acceptable  to  the  people  1 

6.  What  afforded  a  presage  of  his  future  mild  administration? 

7.  Did  he  keep  this  oath  inviolate  ? 

8.  Was  Nerva  avaricious  ? 

9.  Was  his  reign  free  from  disturbances  ? 

1 0.  Were  all  conspiracies  repressed  from  this  time 7 

1 1 .  Did  Nerva  exert  himself  to  quell  it  ? 

1 2.  Were  his  endeavours  successful  ? 

13.  What  important  consequences  ensued  from  thest  commotions? 
II.  What  occasioned  his  death  7 


•1HE    EMPIRB-  317 

15.  What  was  his  character  ? 

16.  How  did  Trajan  act  on  his  accession,  and  what  advice  did  he  re- 

ceive 1 

1 7.  What  sentiments  did  his  subjects  entertain  of  their  new  emperor  1 

18.  With  whom  did  he  commence  hostilities  ! 

19.  What  was  the  event  of  the  campaign  1 

20.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  victory  1 
21    Did  peace  continue  long  1 

22.  What  great  undertaking  did  he  accomplish  in  this  expedition  1 

23.  Was  it  a  difficult  work  1 

24.  What  followed  the  building  of  the  bridge  ? 

25.  What  was  the  event  of  this  second  campaign? 

26.  What  advantages  arose  from  this  conquest  * 

27.  Did  Trajan  suffer  prosperity  to  make  him  neglectful  of  his  duties  ! 


SECTION  II. 

1.  IT  had  been  happy  for  Trajan's  memory,  had  he  shown 
equal  clemency  to  all  his  subjects  ;  but  about  the  ninth  year 
v.  c.  860.  >  of  his  reign,  he  was  persuaded  to  look  upon 
A.  D.  107.  3  the  Christians  with  a  suspicious  eye,  and  great 
numbers  of  them  were  put  to  death  by  popular  tumults  and 
judicial  proceedings.  2.  However,  the  persecution  ceased 
after  some  time ;  for  the  emperor,  finding  that  the  Chris- 
tians were  an  innocent  and  inoffensive  people,  suspended 
their  punishments. 

3.  During  this  emperor's  reign  there  was  a  dreadful  in- 
surrection of  the  Jews  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  This 
wretched  people,  still  infatuated,  and  ever  expecting  some 
signal  deliverance,  took  the  advantage  of  Tra'jan's  expedi- 
tion to  the  east,  to  massacre  all  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
whom  they  could  get  into  their  power.  4.  This  rebellion 
first  began  in  Cyre'ne,  a  Roman  province  in  Africa ;  from 
thence  the  flame  extended  to  Egypt,  and  next  to  the  island  ^ 
of  Cyprus.  Dreadful  were  the  devastations  committed  by  • 
these  infatuated  people,  and  shocking  the  barbarities  exer- 
cised on  the  unoffending  inhabitants.  5.  Some  were  sawn 
asunder,  others  cast  to  wild  beasts,  or  made  to  kill  each 
other,  while  the  most  unheard-of  torments  were  invented 
and  exercised  on  the  unhappy  victims  of  their  fury.  Nay, 
to  such  a  pitch  was  their  animosity  carried,  that  they  actu- 
ally ate  the  flesh  of  their  enemies,  and  even  wore  their  skins. 
6.  However,  these  cruelties  were  of  no  long  duration  :  the 
governors  of  the  respective  provinces  making  head  againat 
2  o2 


318  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

their  tumultuous  fury,  caused  them  to  experience  the  hor 
rors  of  retaliation,  and  put  them  to  death,  not  as  human  be 
h»gs,  but  as  outrageous  pests  of  society.  In  Cy'prus  it  was 
wade  capital  for  any  Jew  to  set  foot  on  the  island. 

7.  During  these  bloody  transactions,  Tra'jan  was  prose 
cuting  his  successes  in  the  east,  where  he  carried  the  Ro 
man  arms  farther  than  they  had  ever  before  penetrated ;  but 
resolving  to  visit  Rome  once  more,  he  found  himself  too 
weak  to  proceed  in  his  usual  manner.     He  therefore  deter- 
mined to  return  by  sea ;  but  on  reaching  the  city  of  Seleu'- 
A.  D.  >     cia,  he  died  of  an  apoplexy,  in  the  sixty-third  year 
117-5     of  his    age,  after  a  reign   of  nineteen   years,  six 
nsonths,  and  fifteen  days. 

8.  A'drian,  the  nephew  of  Trajan,  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him.     He  began  his  reign  by  pursuing  a  course  opposite  to 
that  of  his  predecessor,  taking  every  method  of  declining 
war,  and  promoting  the  arts  of  peace.     His   first  care  was 
to  make  peace  with  the  Par'thians,  and  to  restore  Chos'roes, 
for  he  was  satisfied  with  preserving  the  ancient  limits  of  the 
empire,  and  seemed  no  way  ambitious  of  extensive  con- 
quest. 

9.  A'drian  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Roman 
emperors  for  the  variety  of  his  endowments.    He  was  highly 
skilled  in  all  the  accomplishments  both  of  body  and  mind. 
He  composed  with  great  beauty,  both  in  prose  and  verse  ; 
he  pleaded  at  the  bar,  and  was  one  of  the  best  orators  of  his 
time.     10.  Nor  were  his  virtues  fewer  than  his  accomplish- 
ments.    His  moderation  and  clemency  appeared  by  pardon- 
ing the  injuries  which  he  had  received  when  he  was  yet  but 
a  private  man.    One  day  meeting  a  person  who  had  formerly 
been  his  most  inveterate  enemy — "  My  good  friend,"  said 
he,  "  you  have  escaped  ;  for  I  am  made  emperor."    He  was 
affable  to  his  friends,  and  gentle  to  persons  of  meaner  sta- 
tions ;  he  relieved  their  wants,  and  visited  them  in  sickness ; 
it  being  his  constant  maxim,  that  he  had  been  elected  em- 
peror, not  for  his  own  good,  but  for  the  benefit  of  mankind 
at  large. 

11.  These  virtues  were,  however,  contrasted  by  vices  of 
considerable  magnitude ;  or  rather,  he  wanted  strength  of 
mind  to  preserve  his  rectitude  of  character  without  deviation. 

12.  He  was  scarcely  settled  on  the  throne,  when  several 
of  the  northern  barbarians  began  to  devastate  the  frontier 
provinces  of  the  empire.     These  hardy  nations,  who  now 
found  the  way  to  conquer,  by  issuing  from  their  forests,  and 


THE    EMPIRE.  319 

then  retiring  on  the  approach  of  a  superior  force,  began  to 
be  truly  formidable  to  Rome.  13.  A'drian  had  thoughts  of 
contracting  the  limits  of  the  empire,  by  giving  up  some  of 
the  most  remote  and  least  defensible  provinces ;  in  this,  how- 
ever, he  was  overruled  by  friends,  who  wrongly  imagined 
that  an  extensive  frontier  would  intimidate  an  invading  ene- 
my. 14.  But  though  he  complied  with  their  remonstrances, 
he  broke  down  the  bridge  over  the  Dan'ube,  which  his  pre- 
decessor had  built,  sensible  that  the  same  passage  which  was 
open  to  him,  was  equally  convenient  to  the  incursions  of  his 
barbarous  neighbours. 

15.  Having  staid  a  long  time  at  Rome,  to  see  that  all  things 
were  regulated  and  established  for  the  safety  of  the  public, 
he  prepared  tc  make  a  progress  through  his  whole  empire. 
16.  It  was  one  of  his  maxims,  that  an  emperor  ought  to  imi- 
tate the  sun,  which  diffuses  warmth  and  vigour  over  all  parts 
of  the  earth.  He,  therefore,  took  with  him  a  splendid  court, 
and  a  considerable  force,  and  entered  the  province  of  Gaul, 
where  he  caused  the  inhabitants  to  be  numbered.  17.  From 
Gaul  he  went  into  Germany,  thence  to  Holland,  and  after- 
wards passed  over  into  Britain  ;  where,  reforming  many 
abuses,  and  reconciling  the  natives  to  the  Romans,  he,  for 
the  better  security  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
built  a  wall  of  wood  and  earth,  extending  from  the  river 
E'den,  in  Cumberland,  to  the  Tyne,  in  Northumberland,  to 
prevent  the  incursions  of  the  Picts,  and  other  barbarous 
nations  of  the  north.  18.  From  Britain,  returning  through 
Gaul,  he  directed  his  journey  to  Spain,  his  native  country, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  joy.  19.  Returning  to 
Rome,  he  continued  there  for  some  time,  in  order  to  prepare  for 
his  journey  into  the  east,  which  was  hastened  by  a  new  in- 
vasion of  the  Par'thians.  His  approach  compelling  the 
enemy  to  peace,  he  pursued  his  travels  without  molestation. 
He  visited  the  famous  city  of  Athens  ;  there  making  a  con- 
siderable stay,  he  was  initiated  into  the  Eleusin'ian  mysterio, 
which  were  accounted  the  most  sacred  in  the  Pagan  my- 
thology, and  took  upon  him  the  office  of  archon  or  chief 
magistrate.  20.  In  this  place,  also,  he  remitted  the  severity 
of  the  Christian  persecution.  He  was  even  so  far  reconciled, 
to  their  sect,  as  to  think  of  introducing  Christ  among  the  num- 
ber of  the  gods.  21.  From  thence  he  Tossed  over  into 
Africa,  and  spent  much  time  in  reforming  abuses,  regula- 
ting the  government,  deciding  controversies,  and  erecting 
magnificent  buildings.  Among  the  rest,  he  ordered  Car- 


320  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

thage*  to  be  rebuilt,  calling  it  after  his  own  name,  Adri- 
an'ople.t  22.  Again  he  returned  to  Rome ;  travelled  a  second 
time  into  Greece  ;  passed  over  into  Asia  Minor ;  from  thence 
into  Syr'ia ;  gave  laws  and  instructions  to  all  the  neighbouring 
kings;  entered  Pal'estine,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  where  he 
caused  Pompey's  tomb,  that  had  been  long  neglected,  and 
almost  covered  with  sand,  to  be  repaired  and  beautified.  23 
He  gave  orders  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  ;  which  was 
performed  with  great  expedition  by  the  assistance  of  the  Jews, 
who  now  began  to  conceive  hopes  of  being  restored  to  their 
longlost  kingdom.  24.  But  these  expectations  only  served  to 
aggravate  their  calamities  :  for,  being  incensed  at  the  privileges 
which  were  granted  the  Pagan  worshippers  in  their  new 
city,  they  fell  upon  the  Romans  and  Christians  that  were  dis- 
persed throughout  Jude'a,  and  unmercifully  put  them  all  to 
the  sword.  25.  A'drian,  sending  a  powerful  body  of  men 
against  them,  obtained  many  signal,  though  bloody  victories, 
over  the  insurgents.  The  war  was  concluded  in  two  years, 
by  the  demolition  of  above  one  thousand  of  their  best  towns, 
and  the  destruction  of  nearly  six  hundred  thousand  men  in 
battle. 

26.  Having  thus  effectually  quelled  this  dangerous  insur- 
rection, he  banished  all  those  who  remained  in  Judea ;  and 
by  a  public  decree  forbade  them  to  come  within  view  of 
their  native  soil.  But  he  was  soon  after  alarmed  by  a  dan- 
gerous irruption  of  the  barbarous  nations  to  the  northward 
of  the  empire ;  who,  entering  Me'dia  with  great  fury  and 
passing  through  Arme'nia,  carried  their  devastations  as  far 
as  Cappado'cia.  Preferring  peace,  however,  upon  any 
terms,  to  an  unprofitable  war,  A'drian  bought  them  off  by 
large  sums  of  money  ;  so  that  they  returned  peaceably  into 
their  native  wilds,  to  enjoy  their  plunder,  and  to  meditate 
fresh  invasions. 

*  Car' thage,  the  celebrated  capital  of  Africa  Pro'pria,  was  built  by  the 
Tyr'ians,  under  Dido.  This  city,  the  mistress  of  Spain,  Si'cily,  and  Sar- 
din'ia,  was  long  the  rival  of  Rome,  till  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  Scip'io 
the  Second,  surnamed  Africa'nus,  B.  C.  147.  In  its  height  of  prosperity, 
it  contained  upwards  of  700,000  inhabitants. 

•}•  This  must  be  distinguished  from  Adrian'ople,  the  second  city  of 
European  Turkey,  which  was  founded  about  A.M.  2782,  and  repaired 
Dy  the  emperor  Adrian,  A.  D.  122.  Hence  its  name. 


THE    EMPIRE.  321 

Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Was  Trajan  uniformly  merciful? 

2.  Was  the  persecution  of  long  duration 

3.  What  remarkable  event  happened  in  this  reign  ? 

4.  Where  did  the  rebellion  principally  rage? 

5.  What  were  these  barbarities  ? 

6.  Were  no  steps  taken  to  repress  this  insurrection  ? 

'  7.  How  was  Trajan  employed  at  this  time,  and  what  was  hia  end  * 

8.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

9.  What  was  the  character  of  Adrian  ? 

10.  Was  he  a  virtuous  character  ? 

1 1.  Were  not  his  virtues  counterbalanced  ? 

1 2.  By  whom  was  the  empire  now  invaded  ? 

13.  What  wise  measure  did  Adrian  contemplate? 

14.  What  remarkable  edifice  did  he  destroy  ? 

15.  Was  he  attentive  to  the  concerns  of  the  empire  ? 

16.  Why  did  he  do  this? 

17.  What  places  did  he  next  visit? 

18.  Whither  did  he  next  proceed  ? 

19.  Mention  his  further  progress,  and  the  incidents  that  occurred 

20.  Was  he  merciful  to  the  Christians  ? 

21.  Whither  did  he  next  repair,  and  how  did  he  employ  himself? 

22.  Proceed  in  the  description  of  his  route. 

23.  Did  he  not  favour  the  Jews  ? 

24.  Did  they  profit  by  this  favourable  disposition  in  the  emperor  ? 

25.  Was  this  cruelty  punished  ? 

26.  What  followed  this  dangerous  insurrection  ? 


SECTION  III. 

1.  HAVING  spent  thirteen  years  in  travelling  and  reforming 
the  abuses  of  the  empire,  A'drian  at  last  resolved  to  end  his 
fatigues  at  Rome.  2.  Nothing  could  be  more  grateful  to 
the  people  than  his  resolution  of  coming  to  reside  for  tho 
rest  of  his  days  among  them  ;  they  received  him  with  the 
loudest  demonstrations  of  joy  ;  and  though  he  now  began  to 
grow  old  and  unwieldy,  he  remitted  not  the  least  of  his  for- 
mer assiduity  and  attention  to  the  public  welfare.  3.  His 
chief  amusement  was  in  conversing  with  the  most  celebrated 
men  in  every  art  and  science,  frequently  asserting,  that  he 
thought  no  kind  of  knowledge  inconsiderable,  or  to  be  ne- 
glected, either  in  his  private  or  public  capacity.  4.  He 
ordered  the  knights  and  senators  never  to  appear  in  public, 
but  in  the  proper  habits  of  their  orders.  He  forbade  masters 


322  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

to  kill  their  slaves,  as  had  been  before  allowed  ;  but  ordained 
that  they  should  be  tried  by  the  laws.  5.  He  still  further 
extended  the  lenity  of  the  laws  to  those  unhappy  men,  who 
had  long  been  thought  too  mean  for  justice  :  if  a  master  was 
found  killed  in  his  house,  he  would  not  allow  all  his  slaves 
to  be  put  to  the  torture  as  formerly,  but  only  such  as  might 
have  perceived  and  prevented  the  murder. 

6.  In  such  employments  he  spent  the  greatest  part  of  his 
time ;  but  at  last  finding  the  duties  of  his  station  daily  in- 
creasing, and  his  own  strength  proportionally  upon  the  de- 
cline, he  resolved  on  adopting  a  successor,  and  accordingly 
chose  Antoni'nus  to  that  important  station. 

7.  While  he  was  thus  careful  in  providing  for  the  future 
welfare  of  the  state,  his  bodily  infirmities  became  so  insup- 
portable, that  he  vehemently  desired  some  of  his  attendants 
to    dispatch  him.     8.  Antoni'nus,  however,  would  by  no 
means  permit  any  of  the  domestics  to  be  guilty  of  so  great 
an  impiety,  but  used  all  the  arts  in  his  power  to  reconcile 
the  emperor  to  sustain  life.      9.  His  pain  daily  increasing, 
he  was  frequently  heard  to  cry  out,  "  How  miserable  a  thing 
it  is  to  seek  death,  and  not  to  find  it !"     After  enduring  some 
time  these  excruciating  tortures,  he  at  last  resolved  to  observe 
no  regimen,  saying,  that  kings  sometimes  died  merely  by 
the  multitude  of  their  physicians.     10.  This  conduct  served 
to  hasten  that  death  he  seemed  so  ardently  to  desire  ;  and  it 
was  probably  joy  upon  its  approach  which  dictated  the  cele- 
brated stanzas  that  are  so  well  known  ;*  and  while  repeating 
which  he  expired,  in  the  sixty -second  year  of  his  age,  after 
a  prosperous  reign  of  twenty-one  years  and  eleven  months. 

*  These  stanzas  are — 

Animula,  vagula,  blandula, 
Hospes,  comesque  corpork 
Quae  nunc  abibis  in  loca, 
Pallidula,  rigida,  nudula  1 
Nee,  ut  soles,  dabis  jocos. 

Tmis  imitated  by  Prior  : 

Poor  little  pretty  fluttering  thing, 

Must  we  no  longer  live  together  1 
And  dost  thou  prune  thy  trembling  wing 

To  take  thy  flight  thou  know'st  not  whither  1 
Thy  hum'rous  vein,  thy  pleasing  folly, 

Lie  all  neglected,  all  forgot ; 
And  pensive,  wav'ring,  melancholy, 

Thou  dread'st  and  hop'st  thou  know'st  not  what 


THE    EMPIRE. 

11.  Titus  Antoni'nus,  his  successor,  wna  born  at  La- 
vin'ium,  near  Rome,  rmv  his  ancestors  came  originally  from 
Nismes,  in  Gaul.  His  father  was  a  nobleman,  who  Cu.  c. 
had  enjoyed  the  highest  honours  of  the  empire.  At  £891 
the  time  of  his  succeeding  to  the  throne  he  was  above  fifty 
years  old,  and  had  passed  through  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant offices  of  the  state  with  great  integrity  and  applica- 
tion. 12.  His  virtues  in  private  life  were  no  way  impaired 
by  his  exaltation,  as  he  showed  himself  one  of  the  most  ex- 
cellent princes  for  justice,  clemency,  and  moderation  ;  his 
morals  were  so  pure,  that  he  was  usually  compared  to  Numa, 
and  was  surnamed  the  Pious,  both  for  his  tenderness  to  his 
predecessor  A'drian,  when  dying,  and  his  particular  attach- 
ment to  the  religion  of  his  country. 

13.  He  was  an  eminent  rewarder  of  learned  men,  to 
whom  he  gave  large  pensions  and  great  honours,  collecting 
them  around  him  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  14.  Among 
the  rest,  he  sent  for  Apollo'nius,  the  famous  stoic  philoso- 
pher, to  instruct  his  adopted  son,  Mar'cus  Aure'lius.  Apol- 
lo'nius being  arrived,  the  emperor  desired  his  attendance ; 
but  the  other  arrogantly  answered,  that  it  was  the  scholar's 
duty  to  wait  upon  the  master,  not  the  master  upon  the  scholar. 
15.  To  this  reply,  Antoni'nus  only  returned  with  a  smile, 
"That  it  was  surprising  how  Apollo'nius,  who  made  no 
difficulty  of  coming  from  Greece  to  Rome,  should  think  it 
hard  to  walk  from  one  part  of  Rome  to  another ;"  and  im- 
mediately sent  Mar'cus  Aure'lius  to  him.*  16.  While  the 
good  emperor  was  thus  employed  in  making  mankind  happy, 
in  directing  their  conduct  by  his  own  example,  or  reproving 
their  follies  by  the  keenness  of  rebuke,  he  was  seized  with 
a  violent  fever,  and  ordered  his  friends  and  principal  officers 
to  attend  him.  17.  In  their  presence  he  confirmed  the 
adoption  of  Mar'cus  Aure'lius ;  then  commanding  the 
golden  statue  of  Fortune,  which  was  always  in  the  chamber 
of  the  emperors,  to  be  removed  to  that  of  his  successor,  he 
expired  in  the  seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age,  after  a  pros 
perous  reign  of  twenty-two  years  and  almost  eight  months.t 

*  Antoni'nus  being  made  a  model  of  wisdom  and  virtue,  he  was  as 
much  respected  by  foreigners  as  by  his  own  people  ? 

|  This  emperor  was  remarkably  favourable  to  the  Christians,  and 
wrote  thus  to  his  governors  in  Asia: — "  If  any  one  shall,  for  the  future, 
molest  the  Christians,  and  accuse  them  merely  on  account  of  their  re- 
ligion, let  the  person  who  is  arraigned  be  discharged,  though  he  w  found 
to  be  a  Christian,  and  the  accuser  be  punished  according  to  the  rigour 
of  the  law." 


324  HISTORY  OF  ROME. 

18.  Mar'cus  Aure'lius,  though  left  sole  successor  to  the 
v.  c.  >  throne,  took  Lu'cius  Ve'rus  as  his  associate  and 
914.5  equal,  in  governing  the  state.  19.  Aure'lius  was 
the  son  of  An'nius  Ve'rus,  of  an  ancient  and  illustrious 
family,  which  claimed  its  origin  from  Nu'ma.  Lu'cius  Ve'- 
rus was  the  son  of  Com'modus,  who  had  been  adopted  by 
A'drian,  but  died  before  he  succeeded  to  the  throne.  20. 
Aure'lius  was  as  remarkable  for  his  virtues  and  accomplish- 
ments, as  his  partner  in  the  empire  was  for  his  ungovern- 
able passions  and  debauched  morals.  The  one  was  an  ex- 
ample of  the  greatest  goodness  and  wisdom  ;  the  other  of 
ignorance,  sloth,  and  extravagance. 

21.  The  two  emperors  were  scarcely  settled  OH  the 
throne,  when  the  empire  was  attacked  on  every  side,  from 
the  barbarous  nations  by  which  it  was  surrounded.  The 
Cat'ti  invaded  Germany  and  Rhoe'tia,  ravaging  all  with  fire 
and  sword  ;  but  were  repelled  by  Victori'nus.  The  Britons 
likewise  revolted,  but  were  repressed  by  Capur'nius.  22. 
But  the  Parthians,  under  their  king  Volog'esus,  made  an  ir- 
ruption still  more  dreadful  than  either  of  the  former ;  de- 
stroying the  Roman  legions  in  Arme'nia ;  then  entering 
Syria,  they  drove  out  the  Roman  governor,  and  filled  the 
whole  country  with  terror  and  confusion.  To  repel  this 
barbarous  eruption,  Ve'rus  went  in  person,  being  accom- 
panied by  Aure'lius  part  of  the  way. 

23.  Ve'rus,  however,  proceeded  no  farther  than  An'tioch, 
and  there  gave  an  indulgence  to  every  appetite,  rioting  in 
excesses  unknown  even  to  the  voluptuous  Greeks  ;  leaving 
all  the  glory  of  the  field  to  his  lieutenants,  who  were  sent  to 
repress  the  enemy.  24.  These,  however,  fought  with  great 
success ;  for  in  the  four  years  that  the  war  lasted,  the  Ro- 
mans entered  far  into  the  Parthian  country,  and  entirely  sub- 
dued it ;  but  upon  their  return  their  army  was  wasted  to  less 
than  half  its  original  number  by  pestilence  and  famine.  25. 
This,  however,  was  no  impediment  to  the  vanity  of  Ve'rus, 
who  resolved  to  enjoy  the  honours  of  a  triumph,  so  hardly 
earned  by  others.  Having  appointed  a  king  over  the  Arme'- 
nians,  and  finding  the  Parthians  entirely  subdued,  he  as- 
sumed the  titles  of  Arme'nius  and  Parthi'cus  ;  and  on  his 
return  to  Rome,  he  partook  of  a  triumph  with  Aure'lius, 
which  was  solemnized  with  great  pomp  and  splendour. 

26.  While  Ve'rus  was  engaged  in  this  expedition,  Aure'- 
lius was  sedulously  intent  upon  distributing  justice  and  hap- 
piness to  his  subjects  at  home.  He  first  applied  himself  to 


THE    KMPIRK.  3'29 

flie  regulation  of  public  affairs,  and  to  the  correcting  of  such 
faults  as  he  found  in  the  laws  and  policy  of  the  state.  27. 
In  this  endeavour  he  showed  a  singular  respect  for  the  sen- 
ate, often  permitting  them  to  determine  without  appeal ;  so 
that  the  commonwealth  seemed  in  a  manner  once  more  re- 
vived under  his  equitable  administration.  28.  Besides,  such 
was  his  application  to  business,  that  he  often  employed  ten 
days  together  on  the  same  subject,  maturely  considering  it 
on  all  sides,  and  seldom  departing  from  the  senate-house  till 
the  assembly  was  dismissed  by  the  consul.  29.  But  he  was 
daily  mortified  with  accounts  of  the  enormities  of  his  col- 
league ;  being  repeatedly  assured  of  his  vanity  and  extrava- 
gance. 30.  However,  feigning  himself  ignorant  of  these 
excesses,  he  judged  marriage  to  be  the  best  method  of  re- 
claiming him  ;  and,  therefore,  sent  him  his  daughter  Lu- 
cil'la,  a  woman  of  great  beauty,  whom  Ve'rus  married  at 
Antioch.  31.  But  even  this  was  found  ineffectual,  for  Lu- 
cil'la  proved  of  a  disposition  very  unlike  her  father  ;  and,  in- 
stead of  correcting  her  husband's  extravagances  only  con- 
tributed to  inflame  them.  32.  Aure'lius  still  hoped  that, 
upon  the  return  of  Ve'rus  to  Rome,  his  presence  would 
keep  him  in  awe,  and  that  happiness  would  at  length  be  re- 
stored to  the  state.  In  this  he  was  also  disappointed.  Hia 
return  seemed  fatal  to  the  empire  ;  for  his  army  carried 
back  the  plague  from  Par'thia,  and  disseminated  the  infec- 
tion into  the  provinces  through  which  it  passed. 

33.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  miserable  state  of  things 
upon  the  return  of  Ve'rus.  In  this  horrid  picture  were  re- 
presented an  emperor,  unawed  by  example  or  the  calamities 
surrounding  him,  giving  way  to  unheard-of  crimes  ;  a  raging 
pestilence  spreading  terror  and  desolation  through  all  parts 
of  the  western  world ;  earthquakes,  famines,  inundations, 
almost  unexampled  in  history ;  the  products  of  the  earth 
through  all  Italy  devoured  by  locusts  ;  the  barbarous  nations 
around  the  empire  taking  advantage  of  its  various  calamities, 
and  making  their  irruptions  even  into  Italy  itself.  34.  The 
priests  doing  all  they  could  to  put  a  stop  to  the  miseries  of 
the  state,  by  attempting  to  appease  the  gods,  vowing  and 
offering  numberless  sacrifices ;  celebrating  all  the  sacred 
rites  that  had  ever  been  known  in  Rome.  35.  To  crown 
the  whole,  these  enthusiasts,  as  if  the  impending  calamities 
had  not  been  sufficient,  ascribed  the  distresses  of  the  slate 
to  the  impieties  of  the  Christians.  A  violent  persecution 

2E 


326  HISTORY  or  HOME. 

ensued  in  all  parts  of  the  empire ;  and  Justin  Martyr, 
Polycarp'us,  and  a  prodigious  number  of  less  note,  suffered 
martyrdom. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Did  Adrian  enjoy  repose  from  this  time  ? 

2.  Was  this  resolution  agreeable  to  the  people  ? 

3.  How  did  he  amuse  himself.' 

4.  What  new  edicts  did  he  issue  ? 

5.  Did  he  not  ameliorate  the  condition  of  slaves  ? 

6.  Was  he  still  equal  to  the  fatigues  of  the  empire  7 

7.  Were  not  his  sufferings  great  ? 

8.  Were  his  wishes  complied  with  ? 

9.  Were  these  arts  successful  ? 

10.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  conduct? 

1 1.  Who  was  his  successor? 

1 2.  Did  he  preserve  his  virtue  on  his  exaltation  ? 

1 3.  Was  he  a  favourer  of  learning  1 

14.  What  anecdote  is  related  of  one  of  these  T 

15.  What  was  the  emperor's  reply  ? 

16.  Did  he  experience  a  long  and  prosperous  reign  ? 

17.  Whom  did  he  appoint  as  his  successor? 

18.  Was  Marcus  Aurelius  sole  emperor? 

19.  Who  were  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus? 

20.  Were  their  characters  similar  ? 

2 1 .  Was  their  reign  peaceable  ? 

22.  Was  there  not  a  more  formidable  invasion  still  ? 

23.  Did  Verus  show  himself  worthy  of  the  trust? 

24.  Were  they  successful  ? 

25.  Did  Verus  appear  to  feel  this  misfortune  ? 

26.  How  was  Aurelius  employed  in  the  mean  time? 

27.  Did  he  do  this  solely  by  his  own  authority  ? 

28.  Was  he  hasty  in  his  decisions  ? 

29.  Was  he  acquainted  with  the  follies  of  his  colleague? 

30.  How  did  he  attempt  his  reformation  ? 

31.  Was  this  effectual! 

32.  What  farther  hopes  did  Aurelius  entertain  ? 

33.  What  was  the  state  of  the  empire  at  this  period  ? 

34.  What  were  the  means  made  use  of  to  avert  these  calamities  ? 

35.  To  whom  were  they  imputed? 


SECTION  IV. 


1.  IN  this  scene  of  universal  tumult,  desolation  and  dis- 
tress, there  was  nothing  left  but  the  virtues  and  the  wisdom 
of  one  man  to  restore  tranquillity  and  happiness  to  the  em- 


THE  EMPIRE.  327 

pire.  2.  Aure'lius  began  his  endeavours  by  marching  against 
the  Marcoman'ni  and  Qua'di,  taking  Ve'rus  with  him,  who 
reluctantly  left  the  sensual  delights  of  Rome  for  the  fatigues 
of  a  camp.  3.  They  came  up  with  the  Marcoman'ni  near 
the  city  of  Aquile'ia,  and  after  a  furious  engagement,  routed 
their  whole  army ;  then  pursuing  them  across  the  Alps, 
overcame  them  in  several  contests  ;  and,  at  C  u.  c.  922. 
last,  entirely  defeating  them,  returned  into  Italy  £  A.  D.  169. 
without  any  considerable  loss.  4.  As  the  winter  was  far  ad- 
vanced, Ve'rus  was  determined  on  going  to  Rome,  in  which 
journey  he  was  seized  with  an  apoplexy  that  put  an  end  to 
his  life,  at  the  age  of  thirty-nine,  having  reigned  in  con- 
junction with  Aure'lius  nine  years. 

5.  Aure'lius,  who  had  hitherto  sustained  the  fatigues  of 
governing,  not  only  an  empire,  but  his  colleague,  began  to 
act  with  greater  diligence,  and  more  vigour  than  ever.   After 
thus  subduing  the  Marcoman'ni,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  resumed  his  attempts  to  benefit  mankind  by  a  farther  re- 
formation. 

6.  But  his  good  endeavours  were  soon  interrupted  by  a 
renewal  of  the  former  wars.     In  one  of  the  engagements 
that  ensued,  he  is  said  to  have  been  miraculously  relieved 
when  his  army  was  perishing  with  thirst,  by  the  prayers  of 
a  Christian  legion*  which  had  been  levied  in  his  service ; 
for  we  are  told,  that  there  fell  such  a  shower  of  rain,  as  in- 
stantly refreshed  the  fainting  army.     The  soldiers  were 
seen  holding  their  mouths  and  their  helmets  towards  heaven, 
to  catch  the  water  which  came  so  wonderfully  to  their  relief. 
7.  The  same  clouds  which  served  for  their  rescue,  discharged 
so  terrible  a  storm  of  hail,  accompanied  with  thunder,  against 
the  enemy,  as  astonished  and  confused  them.     By  this  un- 
looked-for aid,  the  Romans,  recovering  strength  and  cournirc, 
renewed  the  engagement  with  fresh  vigour,  and  cut  the 
enemy  to  pieces.     8.    Such  are  the  circumstances  of  an 
event,  acknowledged  by  Pagan  as  well  as  Christian  writers ; 
only  with  this  difference,  that  the  latter  ascribe  the  miracle 
to  their  own,  the  former  to  the  prayers  of  their  emperor. 
However  this  be,  Aure'lius  seemed  so  sensible  of  miracu- 
lous assistance,  that  he  immediately  relaxed  the  persecution 
against  the  Christians,  and  wrote  to  the  senate  in  their  favour. 

9.  Soon  after  this  event,  Avid'ius  Cas'sius,  one  of  the 

*  Legion,  a  Ixxly  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  army,  consisting  of  300 
horse  and  4000  foot.  Figuratively,  an  army,  a  military  force,  or  any 
great  number 


328  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

generals  who  had  fought  with  such  success  against  th« 
Parthians,  assumed  the  imperial  purple,  but  was  shortly 
after  killed  in  an  engagement.  When  his  head  was  brought 
to  Aure'lius,  he  expressed  great  sorrow,  turned  his  eyes 
away,  and  caused  it  to  be  honourably  interred,  complaining 
that  he  had  been  robbed  of  an  opportunity  of  showing  mercy 
On  being  blamed  for  his  too  great  lenity  to  the  relatives  and 
friends  of  Cas'sius,  he  sublimely  replied,  "  We  have  no 
lived  nor  served  the  gods  so  ill,  as  to  think  that  they  would 
favour  Cas'sius." 

10.  He  usually  called  philosophy  his  mother,  in  opposi 
tion  to  the  court,  which  he  considered  as  his  step-mother 
He   also   frequently  said,   "  the   people   are   happy  whose 
kings  are  philosophers."     He  was,  independent  of  his  dig- 
nity, one  of  the  most  considerable  men  then  existing ;  and, 
though  he  had  been  born  in  the  meanest  station,  his  merits 
as  a  writer  (for  his  works  remain  to  this  day)  would  have 
insured  him  immortality. 

11.  Having  thus  restored  prosperity  to  his  subjects,  and 
peace  to  mankind,  news  was  brought  him  that  the  Scyth'ians, 
and  other  barbarous  nations  of  the  north,  were  up  in  arms, 
and  invading  the  empire.     12.  He  once  more,  therefore, 
resolved  to  expose  his  aged  person  in  the  defence  of  his 
country,  and  made  speedy  preparations  to  oppose  them. — 
He  went  to  the  senate,  and  desired  to  have  money  out  of 
the  public  treasury.     He  then  spent  three  days  in  giving 
the  people  lectures  on  the  regulation  of  their  lives  ;  and, 
having  finished,  departed  upon  his  expedition,  amidst  the 
prayers  and  lamentations  of  his  subjects.     Upon  going  to 
open  his  third  campaign,  he  was  seized  at  Vienna  with 
the  plague,  which  stopped  his  farther  progress.     Nothing, 
however,  could  abate  his  desire  of  being  beneficial  to  man- 
kind.    14.  His  fears  for  the  youth  and  unpromising  dis- 
position of  Com'modus,  his  son  and  successor,  seemed 
to  give  him  great  uneasiness.     He  therefore  addressed  his 
friends  and  the  principal  officers  that  were  gathered  round 
his  bed,  expressing  his  hope,  that  as  his  son  was  now  losing 
his  father,  he  would  find  many  in  them.     15.  While  thus 
speaking,  he  was  seized  with  a  weakness  which  stopped  his 
utterance,  and  brought  on  death.    He  died  in  the  fifty-ninth 
year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  nineteen  years.     It  seemed 
as  if  the  glory  and  prosperity  of  the  empire  died  with  this 
greatest  of  the  Roman  emperors. 


THE    EMPIRE.  329 

Questions  for  Examination. 

'.    To  whom  did  the  Romans  look  for  a  restoration  of  the  tranquillity 
of  the  empire? 

2.  Against  whom  did  Aurelius  march,  and  who  accompanied  him! 

3.  Where  did  they  come  up  with  the  Marcomanni,  and  what  was  the 

result  of  the  engagement? 

4.  What  was  the  fate  of  Verus  ? 

5    How  did  Aurelius  act  on  his  return  to  Rome  ? 

6.  What  miraculous  event  was  ascribed  to  the  prayers  of  a  Christian 

legion  1 

7.  How  did  it  operate  on  the  enemy  1 

8.  Did  not  Aurelius,  in  consequence,  interest  himself  in  favour  of  the 

Christians  ? 

9.  What  reply  did  Aurelius  make  to  those  who  blamed  him  for  his 

lenity  to  the  friends  of  Cassius  ? 

10.  What  sayings  are  recorded  of  him,  and  what  was  his  character  ? 

11.  What  news  was  brought  to  Aurelius  soon  after  peace  had   been 

restored ! 

12.  In  what  way  did  he  occupy  himself  previous  to  his  departure  to 

oppose  the  enemy  ? 

13.  At  what  place  was  he  seized  with  the  plague? 

14.  What  seemed  to  give  him  great  uneasiness? 

15.  How  old  was  Aurelius  when  he  died,  and  how  many  years  had  ho 

reigned  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM  COMMODUS  TO  THE  TRANSFERRING  OF  THE  SEAT  OF 
EMPIRE,  UNDER  CONSTANTINE,  FROM  ROME  TO  CONSTAN- 
TINOPLE.  V.  C.  933.  A.  D.  180. 

• 

1.  THE  merits  of  Aurelius  procured  Commodus  an  easy 
Accession  to  the  throne.*  He  was  acknowledged  emperor 
by  the  army,  by  the  senate  and  people,  and  afterwards  by 
nil  the  provinces. 

JJ.  But  his  whole  reign  was  a  tissue  of  wantonness  and 
folly,  cruelty  and  injustice,  rapacity  and  corruption.  So 
strong  a  similitude  was  there  between  his  conduct  and  that 
of  Domi'tian,  that  a  reader  might  imagine  he  was  going  over 
the  history  of  the  same  reign.  3.  He  spent  the  day  in 

*  Com'modus  was  the  first  emperor  that  was  born  in  hia  fath«r'« 
reign,  and  the  second  that  succeeded  his  father  in  the  empire. 
2  E  2 


330  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

feasting,  and  the  night  in  the  most  abominable  wickedness 
He  would  sometimes  go  about  the  markets  in  a  frolic,  with 
small  wares,  as  a  petty  chapman  ;  sometimes  he  affected  to 
be  a  horse-courser ;  at  other  times  he  drove  his  own  chariot, 
..-in  a  slave's  habit.  Those  he  promoted  resembled  himself, 
being  the  companions  of  his  pleasures,  or  the  ministers  of 
his  cruelties. 

4.  If  any  person  desired  to  be  revenged  on  an  enemy,  by 
bargaining  with  Com'modus  for  a  sum  of  money,  he  was 
permitted  to  destroy  him  in  any  manner  he  thought  proper. 
He  commanded  a  person  to  be  cast  to  the  wild  beasts  for 
reading  the  life  of  Calig'ula  in   Sueto'nius.     He  ordered 
another  to  be  thrown  into  a  burning  furnace,  for  accidentally 
overheating  his  bath.     He  would  sometimes,  when  he  was 
in  a  pleasant  humour,  cut  off  men's  noses,  under  pretence 
of  shaving  their  beards  ;  and  yet  he  was  himself  so  jealous 
of  all  mankind,  that  he  thought  it  necessary  to  be  his  own 
barber. 

5.  At  length,  upon  the  feast  of  Janus,  resolving  to  fence 
before  the  people,  as  a  common  gladiator,  three  of  his  friends 
remonstrated  with  him  upon  the  indecency  of  such  behaviour: 
these  were  Lae'tus,  his  general;  Elec'tus,  his  chamberlain; 
and  Mar'cia,  of  whom  he  always  appeared  excessively  fond. 
6.  Their  advice  was  attended  with  no  other  effect  than  that 
of  exciting  him  to  resolve  upon  their  destruction.    7.  It  was 
his  method,  like  that  of  Domi'tian,  to  set  down  the  names 
of  all  such  as  he  intended  to  put  to  death  in  a  roll,  which 
he  carefully  kept  by  him.     However,  at  this  time,  happen- 
ing to  lay  the  roll  on  his  bed,  while  he  was  bathing  in 
another  room,  it  was  taken  up  by  a  little  boy  whom  he  pas- 
sionately loved.    The  child,  after  playing  with  it  some  time, 
brought  it  to  Mar'cia,  who  was  instantly  alarmed  at  the  con- 
tents.    8.  She  immediately  discovered  her  terror  to  Lae'tus 
and  Elec'tus,  who,  perceiving  their  dangerous  situation,  in- 
stantly resolved  upon  the  tyrant's  death.     9.  After  some 
deliberation,  it  was  agreed  to  dispatch  him  by  poison ;  but 
this  not  succeeding,  Mar'cia  hastily  introduced  a  young  man, 
called   Narcis'sus,  whom   she   prevailed  upon  to  assist  in 
strangling  the  tyrant.     Com'modus  died  in  the  thirty-first 
year  of  his  age,  after  an  impious  reign  of  twelve  years  and 
nine  months. 

10.  Such  were  the  secrecy  and  expedition  with  which 
u.  c.  945.  )  Com'modus  was  assassinated,  that  few  were 
A.  D.  J92.  5  acquainted  with  the  real  circumstances  of  his 


THE    EMPIRE.  33. 

death.  His  body  was  wrapt  up  as  a  bale  of  useless  furni- 
ture, and  carried  through  the  guards,  most  of  whom  were 
either  drunk  or  asleep. 

11.  Hel'vius  Per'tinax,  whose  virtues  and  courage  ren- 
dered him  worthy  of  the  most  exalted  station,  and  who  had 
passed  through  many  changes  of  fortune,  had  been  previ- 
ously fixed  upon  to  succeed  him.  When,  therefore,  the 
conspirators  repaired  to  his  house,  to  salute  him  emperor, 
he  considered  it  as  a  command  from  the  emperor  Com'mo 
dus  for  his  death.  12.  Upon  Lae'tus  entering  his  apartment, 
Per'linax,  without  any  show  of  fear,  cried  out,  that  for  many 
days  he  had  expected  to  end  his  life  in  that  manner,  won- 
dering that  the  emperor  had  deferred  it  so  long.  He  was 
not  a  little  surprised  when  informed  of  the  real  cause  of  their 
visit ;  and  being  strongly  urged  to  accept  of  the  empire,  he 
at  last  complied.  13.  Being  carried  to  the  camp,  Per'tinax 
was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  soon  after  was  acknowledged 
by  the  senate  and  citizens.  They  then  pronounced  Com'- 
modus  a  parricide,  an  enemy  to  the  gods,  his  country,  and 
all  mankind ;  and  commanded  that  his  corpse  should  rot 
upon  a  heap  of  dirt.  14.  In  the  mean  time  they  saluted  Per'- 
tinax as  emperor  and  Caesar,  with  numerous  acclamations, 
and  cheerfully  took  the  oaths  of  obedience.  The  provinces 
soon  after  followed  the  example  of  Rome  ;  so  that  he  began 
his  reign  with  universal  satisfaction  to  the  whole  empire,  in 
the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age. 

15.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  justice  and  wisdom  of  this 
monarch's  reign,  during  the  short  time  it  continued.  But 
the  praetorian  soldiers,  whose  manners  he  attempted  to  re- 
form, having  been  long  corrupted  by  the  indulgence  and  pro- 
fusion of  their  former  monarch,  began  to  hate  him  for  his 
parsimony,  and  the  discipline  he  had  introduced  among  them. 

16.  They  therefore  resolved  to  dethrone  him  ;  and  accord- 
ingly, in  a  tumultuous  manner,  marched  through  the  streets 
of  Rome,  entered  his  palace  without  opposition,  where  a 
Tungrian  soldier  struck  him  dead  with  a  blow  of  his  lanco. 

17.  From  the  number  of  his  adventures  he  was  called  the 
tennis-ball   of  fortune ;  and    certainly  no   man   ever  went 
through   such  a  variety  of  situations  with  so  blameless  a 
character.     He  reigned  but  three  months. 

18.  The  soldiers  having  committed  this  outrage,  made 
u.  c.  954.  >  proclamation,  that  they  would  sell  the  empire 
A.  D.  201.3  to  whoever  would  purchase  it  at  the  highest 
price.  19.  In  consequence  of  this  proclamation,  two  bidders 


332  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

were  found,  namely,  Sulpicia'nus  and  Did'ius.  The  former 
a  consular  person,  prefect  of  the  city,  and  son-in-law  to  the 
late  emperor  Per'tinax.  The  latter  a  consular  person  like- 
wise, a  great  lawyer,  and  the  wealthiest  man  in  the  city 

20.  Sulpicia'nus  had  rather  promises  than  treasure  to  be- 
stow.    The  offers  of  Did'ius,  who  produced  immense  sums 
of  ready  money,  prevailed.    He  was  received  into  the  camp, 
and  the  soldiers  instantly  swore  to  obey  him  as  emperor. 

21.  Upon  being  conducted  to  the  senate-house,  he  addressed 
the  few  that  were  present  in  a  laconic  speech,  "  Fathers, 
you  want  an  emperor,  and  I  am  the  fittest  person  you  can 
choose."     The  choice  of  the  soldiers  was  confirmed  by  the 
senate,  and  Did'ius  was  acknowledged  emperor,  in  the  fifty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age.     22.  It  should  seem,  by  this  weak 
monarch's   conduct  when  seated   on  the   throne,   that  he 
thought  the  government  of  an  empire  rather  a  pleasure  than 
a  toil.     Instead  of  attempting  to  gain  the  hearts  of  his  sub- 
jects, he  gave  himself  up  to  ease  and  inactivity,  utterly  re- 
gardless of  the  duties  of  his  station.     He  was  mild  and  gen- 
tle indeed,  neither  injuring  any,  nor  expecting  to  be  injured. 
23.  But  that  avarice  by  which  he  became  opulent,  still  fol- 
lowed him  in  his  exaltation  ;  so  that  the  very  soldiers  who 
elected  him  soon  began  to  detest  him,  for  qualities  so  oppo- 
site to  a  military  character.     24.  The  people  also,  against 
whose  consent  he  was  chosen,  were  not  less  his  enemies. 
Whenever  he  issued  from  his  palace,  they  openly  poured 
forth  their  imprecations  against  him,  crying  out,  that  he  was 
a  thief,  and  had  stolen  the  empire.     25.  Did'ius,  however, 
patiently  bore  all  their  reproach,  and  testified  his  regard  by 
every  kind  of  submission.     26.  Soon  after  Seve'rus,  an  Af- 
rican by  birth,  being  proclaimed  by  his  army,  began  his 
reign  by  promising  to  revenge  the  death  of  Per'tinax. 

27.  Did'ius  upon  being  informed  of  his  approach  towards 
Rome,  obtained  the  consenUof  the  senate  to  send  him  am- 
bassadors, offering  to  make  him  a  partner  in  the  empire.  28. 
But  Seve'rus  rejected  this  offer,  conscious  of  his  own 
strength,  and  of  the  weakness  of  the  proposer.  The  sen- 
ate appeared  to  be  of  the  same  sentiment ;  and  perceiving 
the  timidity  and  weakness  of  their  present  master,  abandoned 
him.  29.  Being  called  together,  as  was  formerly  practised 
R  the  times  of  the  commonwealth,  by  the  consuls,  they 
unanimously  decreed,  that  Did'ius  should  be  deprived  of  the 
empire,  and  that  Severus  should  be  proclaimed  in  his  stead. 
They  then  commanded  Did'ius  to  be  slain,  and  sent  messen- 


THE    EMPIRE. 


gers  for  this  purpose  to  the  palace,  who,  having  found  him, 
with  a  few  friends  that  still  adhered  to  his  interest,  th.^y 
struck  oil'  his  head. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Did  Comraodus  succeed  peaceably  7 

2.  Did  he  imitate  his  father's  virtues  7 

3.  Mention  some  of  his  follies  1 

4.  Mention  some  of  his  wanton  cruelties  ? 

5.  Who  remonstrated  with  him  on  this  conduct  1 

6.  What  effect  did  this  remonstrance  produce  7 

7.  How  was  this  discovered  ? 

8.  What  was  the  consequence 7 

9.  How  was  it  affected  1 

10.  Were  the  circumstances  of  his  death  generally  known    ' 

11.  Who  succeeded  him  1 

12.  Did  Pertinax  discover  any  signs  of  fear  1 

13.  What  ensued  on  his  compliance  7 

14.  Was  he  acceptable  to  the  Roman  people  7 

15.  How  did  ho  govern  7 

16.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

17.  By  what  appellation  was  he  distinguished,  and  why  T 

18.  How  was  the  imperial  purple  next  disposed  of! 

19.  Who  were  the  candidates  1 

20.  Who  was  the  successful  candidate  7 

21.  Was  he  acknowledged  by  the  senate  7 

22.  What  was  his  conduct  as  emperor  7 

23.  What  gained  him  the  hatred  of  the  soldiers  7 

24.  Was  he  a  favourite  of  the  people  7 

25.  How  did  Didius  bear  this  7 

26.  What  new  competitor  for  the  throne  appeared  7 

27.  How  did  Didius  act  on  this  occasion  7 

28.  Was  his  offer  accepted  7 

29.  What  was  the  event  7 


' 

SECTION  II. 

1.  SEVE'RUS  having  overcome  Niger,  A.  D.  194,  and  \lbi' 
mis,  A.  D.  198,  who  were  his  competitors  for  the  empire, 
assumed  the  reins  of  government,  uniting  great  vigour  with 
the  most  refined  policy  ;  yet  his  African  cunning  was  con- 
sidered as  a  sin^uhir  defect  in  him.  2.  He  is  celebrated  for 
his  wit,  learning,  and  prudence;  but  execrated  for  his  per 


334  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

fidy  and  cruelty.     In  short,  he  seemed  equally  capable  of 
the  greatest  acts  of  virtue,  and  the  most  bloody  severities. 

3.  He  loaded  his  soldiers  with  rewards  and  honours,  giv- 
ing them  such  privileges  as  strengthened  his  own  power, 
while  they  destroyed  that  of  the  senate ;  for  the  soldiers, 
who  had  hitherto  showed   the  strongest  inclination  to  an 
abuse  of  power,  were  now  made  arbiters  of  the  fate  of  em- 
perors. 

4.  Being  thus  secure  of  his  army  he  resolved  to  give  way 
to  his  natural  desire  of  conquest,  and  to  turn  his  arms  against 
the  Parthians,  who  were  then  invading  the  frontiers  of  the 
empire.     5.  Having,  therefore,  previously  given  the  govern- 
ment of  domestic  policy  to  one  Plau'tian,   a  favourite,  to 
whose  daughter  he  married  his  son  Caracal'la,  he  set  out 
for  the  east,  and  prosecuted  the  war  with  his  usual  expedi- 
tion and  success.     6.  He  compelled  submission  from  the 
king  of  Arme'nia,  destroyed  several  cities  of  Ara'bia  Felix, 
landed  on  the  Parthian  coast,  took  and  plundered  the  fa- 
mous city  of  Ctes'iphon,  marched  back  through  Pal'estine 
and  Egypt,  and  at  length  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph. 

7.  During  this  interval,  Plau'tian,  who  was  left  to  direct 
the  affairs  of  Rome,  began  to  think  of  aspiring  to  the  empire 
himself.    Upon  the  emperor's  return,  he  employed  a  tribune 
of  the  praetorian  cohorts,  of  which  he  was  commander,  to 
assassinate  him,  and  his  son  Caracal'la. 

8.  The   tribune   informed    Seve'rus   of   his   favourite's 
treachery.     He  at  first  received  the  intelligence  as  an  im- 
probable story,  and  as  the  artifices  of  one  who  envied  his 
favourite's  fortune.     However,  he  was  at  last  persuaded  to 
permit  the  tribune  to  conduct  Plau'tian  to  the  emperor's 
apartments  to  be  a  testimony  against  himself.    9.  With  this 
intent  the  tribune  went  and  amused  him  with  a  pretended 
account  of  his  killing  the  emperor  and  his  son  ;  desiring 
him,  if  he  thought  fit  to  see  them  dead,  to  go  with  him  to 
the  palace.     10.  As  Plau'tian  ardently  desired  their   death, 
he  readily  gave  credit  to  the  relation,  and,  following  the  tri- 
bune, was  conducted  at  midnight  into  the  innermost  apart- 
ments of  the  palace.    But  what  must  have  been  his  surprise 
and  disappointment,  when,  instead  of  finding  the  emperor 
lying  dead,  as  he  expected,  he  beheld  the  room  lighted  up 
with  torches,  and  Seve'rus  surrounded  by  his  friends,  pre- 
pared in  array  to  receive  him.    11.  Being  asked  by  the  em- 
peror,  with   a  stern  countenance,   what  had  brought  him 
there  at  that  unseasonable  time,  he  ingenuously  confessed 


THT    EMPIRE.  ,'(.'{.") 

the  whole.,  entreating  forgiveness  for  what  he  had  intended. 
P<J.  The  emperor  seemed  inclined  to  pardon  ;  but  Caracal'la, 
his  son,  who  from  the  earliest  age  showed  a  disposition  to 
cruelty,  ran  him  through  the  body  with  his  sword. 

13.  After  this,  Seve'rus  spent  a  considerable  time  in 
visiting  some  cities  in  Italy,  permitting  none  of  his  officers 
to  sell  places  of  trust  or  dignity,  and  distributing  justice  with 
the  strictest  impartiality.  He  then  undertook  an  expedition 
into  Britain,  where  the  Romans  were  in  danger  of  being 
destroyed,  or  compelled  to  fly  the  province.  After  appoint- 
ing his  two  sons,  Caracal'la  and  Ge'ta,  joint  successors  in 
the  empire,  and  taking  them  with  him,  he  landed  in  Britain, 
A.  D.  208,  to  the  great  terror  of  such  as  had  drawn  down  his 
resentment.  14.  Upon  his  progress  into  the  country,  he 
left  his  son  Ge'ta  in  the  southern  part  of  the  province, 
which  had  continued  in  obedience,  and  marched,  with  his 
son  Caracal'la,  against  the  Caledo'nians.  15.  In  this  expe- 
dition, his  army  suffered  prodigious  hardships  in  pursuing 
the  enemy ;  they  were  obliged  to  hew  their  way  through 
intricate  forests,  to  drain  extensive  marshes,  and  form 
bridges  over  rapid  rivers  ;  so  that  he  lost  fifty  thousand  men 
by  fatigue  and  sickness.  16.  However,  he  surmounted 
these  inconveniences  with  unremitting  bravery,  and  prose- 
cuted his  successes  with  such  vigour,  that  he  compelled  the 
enemy  to  beg  for  peace  ;  which  they  did  not  obtain  without 
the  surrender  of  a  considerable  part  of  their  country.  17. 
It  was  then  that,  for  its  better  security,  he  built  the  famous 
wall,  which  still  goes  by  his  name,  extending  from  Solway 
Frith  on  the  west,  to  the  German  Ocean  on  the  east.  He 
did  not  long  survive  his  successes  here,  but  died  at  York, 
in  the  sixty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  after  an  active,  though 
cruel  reign  of  about  eighteen  years. 

18.  Caracal'la  and  Ge'ta,  his  sons,  being  acknowledged 
as  emperors  by  the   army,  began  to  show  a    Cu.  c. '.'«il. 
mutual  hatred  to  each  other,  even  before  their    £  A.  n.  "2  I  I 
arrival  at  Rome.     But  this  opposition  was  of  no  long  con- 
tinuance ;  for  Caracal'la,  being  resolved  to  govern  alone, 
furiously  entered  Ge'ta's  apartment,  and,  followed  by  ruf- 
fians, slew  hinj.  in  his  mother's  arms. 

19.  Being  thus  sole  emperor,  he  went  on  to  mark  his 
course  with  blood.     Whatever  was  done  by  Domi'tian  or 
Ne'ro,  fell  short  of  this  monster's  barbarities.* 

•  Being  offended  by  the  Alcxan'drians,  he  commanded  them  to  b* 
put  to  the  sword,  without  distiiK-lion  of  sex,  age,  or  condition;  every 


330 


HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


Massacre  of  the  Alexandrian). 

20.  His  tyrannies  at  length  excited  the  resentment  of 
Macri'nus,  the  commander  of  the  forces  in  Mesopota'mia, 
who  employed  one  Mar'tial,  a  man  of  great  strength,  and  a 
centurion  of  the  guards,  to  dispatch  him.  21.  Accordingly, 
as  the  emperor  was  riding  out  one  day,  near  a  little  city 
called  Carrse,  he  happened  to  withdraw  himself  privately, 
upon  a  natural  occasion,  with  only  one  page  to  hold  his 
horse.  This  was  the  opportunity  Mar'tial  had  so  long  and 
ardently  desired :  when,  running  to  him  hastily,  as  if  he 
had  been  called,  he  stabbed  the  emperor  in  the  back,  and 
killed  him  instantly.  22.  Having  performed  this  hardy 
attempt,  he,  with  apparent  unconcern,  returned  to  his  troop ; 
but,  retiring  by  insensible  degrees,  he  endeavoured  to  secure 
himself  by  flight.  His  companions,  however,  soon  missing 
him,  and  the  page  giving  information  of  what  had  been  done, 
he  was  pursued  by  the  German  horse,  and  cut  in  pieces. 

23.  During  the  reign  of  this  execrable  tyrant,  which  con- 
tinued six  years,  the  empire  was  every  day  declining ;  the 
soldiers  were  entirely  masters   of  every  election ;   and  as 
there  were  various  armies  in  different  parts,  so  there  were 
as  many  interests  opposed  to  each  other. 

24.  The  soldiers,  after  remaining  without  an  emperor 
t7.  c.  970.  }     two  days,  fixed  upon  Macri'nus,  who  took  all 
A.  D.  217.  5     possible  methods  to  conceal  his  being  privy  to 
Caracal'la's  murder.     The  senate   confirmed   their  choice 
shortly  after  ;  and  likewise  that  of  his  son,  Diadumenia'nus, 
whom  he  took  as  partner  in  the  empire.     25.  Macri'nus 

house  was  filled  with  carcases,  and  the  sheets  were  obstructed  with  dead 
oodles ;  this  was  merely  in  revenge  for  some  lampoons  they  had  pub- 
lished against  him. 


THE    KMPIRE.  337 

was  fifty-three  years  old  when  he  entered  upon  the  govern- 
ment. He  was  of  obscure  parentage  ;  some  say  by  birth  a 
Moor,  who,  by  the  mere  gradation  of  office,  being  made 
first  prefect  of  the  pnetorian  bands,  was  now,  by  treason 
and  accident,  called  to  fill  the  throne. 

26.  He  was  opposed  by  the  intrigues  of  Mosa,  and  her 
grandson  Heliogaba'lus ;  and  being  conquered  by  some  se- 
ditious legions  of  his   own  army,  he  fled  to  Chalcedon,* 
where  those  who  were  sent  in  pursuit  overtook  him,  and 
put  him  to  death,  together  with  his  son  Diadumenia'nus, 
after  a  short  reign  of  one  year  and  two  months. 

27.  The  senate  and  citizens  of  Rome  being  obliged  to 
submit,  as  usual,  to  the  appointment  of  the  army,  Helioga- 
ba'lus ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  four-     ?  u.  c.  971. 
teen.     His  short  life  was  a  mixture  of  effemi-    5  A.  D.  218. 
nacy,  lust,  and  extravagance.     28.  He  married  six  wives  in 
the  short  space  of  four  years,  and  divorced  them  all.     lit; 
was  so  forrd  of  the  sex,  that  he  carried  his  mother  with  him 
to  the  senate-house,  and  demanded  that  she  should  always 
be  present  when  matters  of  importance  were  debated.     He 
even  went  so  far  as  to  build   a  senate-house  for  women, 
appointing  them  suitable  orders,  habits  and  distinctions,  of 
which  his  mother  was  made  president.     29.   They  me- 
several  times ;  all  their  debates  turned  upon  the  fashions  of 
the  day,  and  the  different  formalities  to  be  used  at  giving 
and  receiving  visits.     To  these  follies  he  added  cruelty  and 
boundless  prodigality ;  he  used  to  say,  that  such  dishes  as 
were  cheaply  obtained  were  scarcely  worth  eating. 

30.  However,  his  soldiers  mutinying,  as  was  now  usual 
with  them,  they  followed  him  to  his  palace,  pursuing  him 
from  apartment  to  apartment,  till  at  last  he  was  found  con- 
cealed in  a  closet.  Having  dragged  him  from  thence  through 
the  streets,  with  the  most  bitter  kivectives,  and  dispatched 
him,  they  attempted  once  more  to  squeeze  his  pampered 
body  into  a  closet;  but  not  easily  eflectiii"  this,  they  throw 
it  into  the  Tiber,  with  heavy  weights,  that  none  might 
afterwards  find  it,  or  give  it  burial.  This  was  the  ignomi- 
nious death  of  Heliogaba'lus,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  hia 
age,  after  a  detestable  reign  of  four  years. 

*  A  city  of  Bithyn'ia,  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  to  Constantinople, 
•2  F 


338  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Questions  for  Examination. 

•  I.  Who  succeeded  Didius  Julianus? 

2.  What  was  the  character  of  Severus  1 

3.  By  what  means  did  he  strengthen  his  power  ? 

4.  What  were  his  first  acts  ? 

5.  To  whom  did  he  commit  the  government  in  his  absence  1 

6.  What  were  his  exploits '! 

7.  How  did  Plautian  conduct  himself  in  this  important  post * 

8.  How  was  this  treachery  discovered  ? 

9.  How  was  this  effected  ? 

10.  Did  Plautian  fall  into  the  snare? 

1 1 .  How  did  he  act  on  the  occasion  1 

12.  Was  he  pardoned  1 

13.  How  did  Severus  next  employ  himself? 

14.  What  were  his  first  measures  in  Britain  ? 

15.  Was  it  a  difficult  campaign  ? 

1 6.  Did  he  overcome  these  difficulties  ? 

1 7.  What  famous  work  did  he  execute,  and  where  did  he  die  ? 

18.  Who  succeeded  him,  and  how  did  the  two  emperors  regard  each 

other? 

1 9.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Caracalla  on  thus  becoming  sole  emperor  ? 

20.  Were  these  cruelties  tamely  suffered  ? 

21.  How  was  this  effected  I 

22.  Did  the  assassin  escape  ? 

23.  What  was  the  state  of  the  empire  during  this  reign  ? 

24.  Who  succeeded  CaracaHa? 

25.  Who  was  Macrinus  ? 

26.  By  whom  was  he  opposed,  and  what  was  his  fate  * 

27.  How  did  Heliogabalus  govern  ? 

28.  Give  a  few  instances  of  his  folly  ? 

29    Did  they  enter  into  his  views,  and  of  what  farther  follies  and  vice* 

was  he  guilty  ? 
30.  What  was  his  end  ? 


SECTION  III. 

1.  HELIOGABA'LUS  was  succeeded  by  Alexander,  his 
cousin-german,*  who,  being  declared  emperor  without  op- 
position, the  senate,  with  their  usual  adulation,  C  u.  c.  975. 
were  for  conferring  new  titles  upon  him  ;  but  ^A.D.222. 
he  modestly  declined  them  all.  2.  To  the  most  rigid  jus- 
tice he  added  the  greatest  humanity.  He  loved  the  good, 
and  was  a  severe  reprover  of  the  lewd  and  infamous.  His 
accomplishments  were  equal  to  his  virtues.  He  was  an 

•  A  Terra  generally  applied  to  the  children  of  brothers  or  sisters. 


THE    EMPIRE.  3.'W 

excellent  mathematician,  geometrician,  and  musician ;  lie 
was  equally  skilful  in  painting  and  sculpture ;  and  in  poetry 
few  of  his  time  could  equal  him.  In  short,  such  were  his 
talents,  and  such  the  solidity  of  his  judgment,  that  though 
but  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was  considered  equal  in  wis- 
dom to  a  sage  old  man. 

3.  About  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  reign  the  Upper  Ger- 
mans, and  other  northern  nations,  began  to  pour  down  in 
immense  swarms  upon  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. They  passed  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  with  sucli 
fury,  that  all  Italy  was  thrown  into  the  most  extreme  con- 
sternation. 4.  The  emperor,  ever  ready  to  expose  his  per- 
son for  the  safety  of  his  people,  made  what  levies  he  could, 
and  went  in  person  to  stem  the  torrent,  which  he  speedily 
effected.  It  was  in  the  course  of  his  successes  against  the 
enemy  that  he  was  cut  off  by  a  mutiny  among  his  own  sol- 
diers. He  died  in  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  after  a 
prosperous  reign  of  thirteen  years  and  nine  days. 

5.  The  tumults  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Alexander  be- 
ing appeased,  Max'imin,  who  had  been  the  C  u.  c.  988. 
chief  promoter  of  the  sedition,  was  chosen  em-  ^  A.  D.  235. 
peror.  6.  This  extraordinary  man,  whose  character  de- 
serves a  particular  attention,  was  born  of  very  obscure 
parentage,  being  the  son  of  a  poor  herdsman  of  Thrace.  He 
followed  his  father's  humble  profession,  and  had  exercised 
his  personal  courage  against  the  robbers  who  infested  that 
part  of  the  country  in  which  he  lived.  Soon  after,  his  am- 
bition increasing,  he  left  his  poor  employment  and  enlisted 
in  the  Roman  army,  where  he  soon  became  remarkable  for 
his  great  strength,  discipline,  and  courage.  7.  This  gigan- 
tic man,  we  are  told,  was  eight  feet  and  a  half  high  ,  he  had 
strength  corresponding  to  his  size,  being  not  more  renmrk- 
able  for  the  magnitude  than  the  symmetry  of  his  person. 
His  wife's  bracelet  usually  served  him  for  a  thumb  ring, 
and  his  strength  was  so  great  that  he  was  able  to  draw  a 
carriage  which  two  oxen  could  not  move.  He  could  strike 
out  the  teeth  of  a  horse  with  a  blow  of  his  fist,  and  break 
its  thigh  with  a  kick.  8.  His  diet  was  as  extraordinary  as 
his  endowments :  he  generally  ate  forty  pounds  weight  of 
flesh  every  day,  and  drank  six  gallons  of  wine,  without  com- 
mitting any  debauch  in  either.  9.  With  a  frame  so  athletic, 
he  was  possessed  of  a  mind  undaunted  in  danger,  neither 
fearing  nor  regarding  any  man.  10.  The  first  time  he  wan 
made  known  to  the  emperor  Seve'rus,  was  while  IK 


340  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

celebrating  games  on  the  birth-day  of  his  son  Ge'ta.  He 
overcame  sixteen  in  running,  one  after  the  other ;  lie  ihen 
kept  up  with  the  emperor  on  horseback,  and  having  fatigued 
him  in  the  course,  he  was  opposed  to  seven  of  the  most  ac 
tive  soldiers,  and  overcame  them  with  the  greatest  ease. 
11.  These  extraordinary  exploits  caused  him  to  be  particu- 
larly noticed ;  he  had  been  taken  into  the  emperor's  body 
guard,  and  by  the  usual  gradation  of  preferment  came  to  be 
chief  commander.  In  this  situation  he  had  been  equally  re- 
markable for  his  simplicity,  discipline,  and  virtue ;  but, 
upon  coming  to  the  empire,  he  was  found  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  monsters  of  cruelty  that  had  ever  disgraced  power  ; 
fearful  of  nothing  himself,  he  seemed  to  sport  with  the  ter- 
rors of  all  mankind. 

12.  However,  his  cruelties  did  not  retard  his  military 
operations,  which  were  carried  on  with  a  spirit  becoming  a 
better  monarch.  He  overthrew  the  Germans  in  several  bat- 
tles, wasted  all  their  country  with  fire  and  sword  for  four 
hundred  miles  together,  and  formed  a  resohition  of  subduing 
all  the  northern  nations,  as  far  as  the  ocean  1 3.  In  these 
expeditions,  in  order  to  attach  the  soldiers  more  firmly  to 
him,  he  increased  their  pay ;  and  in  every  duty  of  the  camp 
he  himself  took  as  much  pains  as  the  meanest  sentinel  in 
his  army,  showing  incredible  courage  and  assiduity.  In 
every  engagement,  where  the  conflict  was  hottest,  Max'imin 
was  seen  fighting  in  person,  and  destroying  all  before  him  ; 
for,  being  bred  a  barbarian,  he  considered  it  his  duty  to  com- 
bat as  a  common  soldier,  while  he  commanded  as  a  general. 

14.  In  the  mean  time  his  cruelties  had  so  alienated  the 
minds  of  his  subjects,  that  secret  conspiracies  were  secretly 
aimed  against  him.  None  of  them,  however,  succeeded, 
till  at  last  his  own  soldiers,  long  harassed  by  famine  and 
fatigue,  and  hearing  of  revolts  on  every  side,  resolved  to 
terminate  their  calamities  by  the  tyrant's  death.  15.  His 
great  strength,  and  his  being  always  armed,  at  first  deterred 
them  from  assassinating  him ;  but  at  length  the  soldiers, 
having  made  his  guards  accomplices  in  their  designs,  set 
upon  him  while  he  slept  at  noon  in  his  tent,  and  without 
opposition  slew  both  him  and  his  son,  whom  he  had  made 
his  partner  in  the  empire.  16.  Thus  died  this  most  re 
markable  man,  after  an  usurpation  of  about  three  years,  in 
the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  His  assiduity  when  in  a 
humble  station,  and  his  cruelty  when  in  power,  serve  to 
evince,  tha*  there  are  some  men  whose  virtues  are  fitted  for 


THE    EMPIRE.  341 

obscurity,  as  there  are  others  who  only  show  themselves 
great  when  placed  in  an  exalted  station. 

17.  The  tyrant  being  dead,  and  his  body  thrown  to  dogs 
and  birds  of  prey,  Pupie'nus  and  Balbie'nus,  Cu.c.  991. 
who  had  usurped  the  imperial  purple,  continu-  £  A.  D.  238. 
ed  for  some  time  emperors,  without  opposition.  18.  But, 
differing  between  themselves,  the  praetorian  soldiers,  who 
were  the  enemies  of  both,  set  upon  them  in  their  palace,  at  a 
time  when  their  guards  were  amused  with  seeing  the  Capit'o- 
line  games ;  and  dragging  them  from  the  palace  towards  the 
camp,  slew  them  both,  leaving  their  dead  bodies  in  the 
street,  as  a  dreadful  instance  of  unsuccessful  ambition. 

19.  In  the  midst  of  this  sedition,  as  the  mutineers  were 
v.c.  991.  >  proceeding  along,  they  by  accident  met  Gor'- 
A.  D.  238.  3  dian,  the  grandson  of  him  who  was  slain  in 
Africa  :  him  they  declared  emperor  on  the  spot.  20.  This 
prince  was  but  sixteen  years  old  when  he  began  to  reign, 
but  his  virtues  seemed  to  compensate  for  his  want  of  expe- 
rience. His  principal  aims  were  to  unite  the  opposing 
members  of  government,  and  to  reconcile  the  soldiers  and 
citizens  to  each  other.  21.  The  army,  however,  began  as 
usual  to  murmur ;  and  their  complaints  were  artfully  fo- 
mented by  Philip,  an  Arabian,  who  was  praitorian  prefect, 
and  aspired  to  the  sovereignty.  Things  thus  proceeded 
from  bad  to  worse.  22.  Philip  was  at  first  made  equal  to 
Gor'dian  in  the  command  of  the  empire ;  shortly  after  he 
was  invested  with  the  sole  power ;  and  at  length,  finding 
himself  capable  of  perpetrating  his  long  meditated  cruelty, 
Gor'dian  was  by  his  order  slain,  in  the  twenty-second  year 
of  his  age,  after  a  successful  reign  of  nearly  six  years. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  Who  succeeded  Heliogabalus  T 

2.  What  was  his  character  ? 

3.  Was  his  reign  peaceable  1 

4.  How  did  Alexander  act  on  the  occasion  ? 

5.  Who  succeeded  Alexander  ] 

6.  Who  was  Maximin  1 

7.  Describe  his  person. 

8.  What  farther  distinguished  him  ? 

9.  Was  his  mind  proportioned  to  his  body  ? 

10.  How  did  he  attract  the  notice  of  Scverus  1 

1 1.  By  what  means  did  he  attain  rank  in  the  army  ? 

12.  Was  he  equally  a  terror  to  his  foreign  enemies  ! 

2r3 


£*<J2  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

13.  By  what  means  did  he  gain  the  confidence  of  his  soldiers  ? 

14.  What  effect  had  his  cruelties  on  the  minds  of  his  subjects? 
Ifi.  How  did  they  accomplish  their  purpose? 

To.  How  long  did  he  reign,  and  what  inference  may  be  drawn  from  his 

conduct  ? 

17.  Who  next  mounted  the  imperial  throne? 
J8.  What  was  their  end  1 
'9.  Who  succeeded  Pupienus  and  Balbienus  ? 

20.  What  were  the  character  and  views  of  this  prince  ? 

21.  Was  his  administration  approved  of  by  all  ? 

22.  Did  Philip  accomplish  his  ambitious  design  ? 


SECTION   IV. 
u.  c.  996. — A.  D.  243. 

1.  PHILIP  having  thus  murdered  his  benefactor,  was  so 
fortunate  as  to  be  immediately  acknowledged  emperor  by  the 
army.  Upon  his  exaltation  he  associated  his  son,  a  boy  of 
six  years  of  age,  as  his  partner  in  the  empire  ;  and,  in  order 
to  secure  his  power  at  home,  made  peace  with  the  Persians, 
and  marched  his  army  towards  Rome.  2.  However,  the 
army  revolting  in  favour  of  De'cius,  his  general,  and  setting 
violently  upon  him,  one  of  his  sentinels  at  a  blow  cut  off 
his  head,  or  rather  cleft  it  asunder,  separating  the  under  jaw 
from  the  upper.  He  died  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  his  age, 
after  a  short  reign  of  about  five  years. 

3.  De'cius  was  universally  acknowledged  as  his  succes- 
u.  c.  1001.7  sor.  His  activity  and  wisdom  seemed,  in 

A.  D.  248.  3  some  measure,  to  stop  the  hastening  decline 
of  the  Roman  empire.  The  senate  seemed  to  think  so 
highly  of  his  merits,  that  they  voted  him  not  inferior  to 
Tra'jan  ;  and  indeed  he  appeared  in  every  instance  to  con- 
sult their  dignity,  and  the  welfare  of  all  the  inferior  ranks  of 
people.  4.  But  no  virtues  could  now  prevent  the  approach- 
ing downfall  of  the  state  ;  the  obstinate  disputes  between 
the  Pagans  and  the  Christians  within  the  empire,  and  the 
unceasing  irruptions  of  barbarous  nations  from  without,  en- 
feebled it  beyond  the  power  of  remedy.  5.  He  was  killed 
in  an  ambuscade  of  the  enemy,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his 
age,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  years  and  six  months. 

6.  Gal'lus,  who  had  betrayed  the  Roman  army,  had  ad- 
TJ.  c.  1004.  >  dress  enough  to  get  himself  declared  emperor 

A.  D.  251.  5    by  that  part  of  it  which  survived  the  defeat; 


THE    EMPIRE.  343 

he  was  forty-five  years  old  when  he  began  to  reign,  and  was 
descended  from  an  honourable  family  in  Rome.  7.  He  was 
the  first  who  bought  a  dishonourable  peace  from  the  enemies 
of  the  state,  agreeing  to  pay  a  considerable  annual  tribute  to 
the  Goths,  whom  it  was  his  duty  to  repress.  He  was  re- 
gardless of  every  national  calamity,  and  was  lost  in  debauch- 
ery and  sensuality.  The  Pagans  were  allowed  a  power  of 
persecuting  the  Christians  through  all  parts  of  the  state.  8. 
These  calamities  were  succeeded  by  a  pestilence  from  heaven, 
that  seemed  to  have  spread  over  every  part  of  the  earth,  and 
continued  raging  for  several  years,  in  an  unheard-of  manner ; 
as  well  as  by  a  civil  war,  which  followed  shortly  after  be- 
tween Gallus  and  his  general  ^Emilia'nus,  who,  having  gain- 
ed a  victory  over  the  Goths,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
his  conquering  army.  9.  Gallus  hearing  this,  soon  roused 
from  the  intoxications  of  pleasure,  and  prepared  to  oppose 
his  dangerous  rival :  but  both  he  and  his  son  were  slain  by 
^Emilia'nus,  in  a  battle  fought  in  Mo^sia.  His  death  was 
merited,  and  his  vices  were  such  as  to  deserve  the  detesta- 
tion of  posterity.  He  died  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of  his 
age,  after  an  unhappy  reign  of  two  years  and  four  months, 
in  which  the  empire  suffered  inexpressible  calamities. 

10.  The  senate  refused  to  acknowledge  the  claims  of 
^Emilia'nus  ;  and  an  army  that  was  stationed  C  u.  c.  1006. 
near  the  Alps  chose  Vale'rian,  who  was  their  (  A.  D.  ~~>H. 
commander,  to  succeed  to  the  throne.  11.  He  set  about  re- 
forming the  state  with  a  spirit  that  seemed  to  mark  a  good 
and  vigorous  mind.  But  reformation  was  now  grown  almost 
impracticable.  12.  The  Persians  under  their  king  Sapor, 
invading  Syr'ia,  took  the  unfortunate  Vale'rian  prisoner,  as 
he  was  making  preparations  to  oppose  them  ;  and  the  indig- 
nities as  well  as  the  cruelties,  which  were  practised  upon 
this  unhappy  monarch,  thus  fallen  into  the  hands  of  his  ene- 
mies, are  almost  incredible.  13.  Sapor,  we  are  told,  used 
him  as  a  footstool  for  mounting  his  horse  ;  he  added  the  bit- 
terness of  ridicule  to  his  insults,  and  usually  observed,  that 
an  attitude  like  that  to  which  Vale'rian  was  reduced,  was  the 
best  statue  that  could  be  erected  in  honour  of  his  victory. 
14.  This  horrid  life  of  insult  and  sufferance  continued  for 
seven  years  ;  and  was  at  length  terminated  by  the  cruel  Per- 
sian commanding  his  prisoner's  eyes  to  be  plucked  out,  and 
afterwards  causing  him  to  be  flayed  alive. 

15.  When  Vale'rian  was  taken  prisoner,  Galic'nus,  l:is 
ton,  promising  to  revenge  the  insult,  was  chosen  emperoi. 


344  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

U.  c.  1012.)  being  then  about  forty-one  years  old.  How- 
A.  D.  259.  5  ever,  it  was  soon  discovered  thai  ne  sought 
rather  the  splendours  than  the  toils  of  empire  ;  for,  after 
having  overthrown  Ingen'uus,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor,  he  sat  down,  as  if  fatigued  with  conquest,  and  gave 
himself  up  to  ease  and  luxury.  16.  At  this  time,  no  less 
than  thirty  pretenders  were  seen  contending  with  each  other 
for  the  dominion  of  the  state,  and  adding  the  calamities  of 
civil  war  to  the  rest  of  the  misfortunes  of  this  devoted  em- 
pire. These  are  usually  mentioned  in  history  by  the  name 
of  the  thirty  tyrants.  17.  In  this  general  calamity,  Galie'- 
nus,  though  at  first  seemingly  insensible,  was  at  length 
obliged  for  his  own  security  to  take  the  field,  and  led  an  army 
to  besiege  the  city  of  Milan,  which  had  been  taken  by  one 
of  the  thirty  usurping  tyrants.  In  this  expedition  he  was 
slain  by  his  own  soldiers :  Mar'tian,  one  of  his  generals, 
having  conspired  against  him. 

18.  Fla'vius  Clau'dius  being  nominated  to  succeed,  was 
u.  c.  1021.  >  joyfully  accepted  by  all  orders  of  the  state, 
A.  D.  268.  5  ar>d  his  title  confirmed  by  the  senate  and  the 
people.  19.  He  was  a  man  of  great  valour  and  conduct, 
having  performed  the  most  excellent  services  against  the 
Goths,  who  had  long  continued  to  make  irruptions  into  the 
empire;  but,  after  a  great  victory  over  that  barbarous  people, 
he  was  seized  with  a  pestilential  fever  at  Ser'mium  in  Pan- 
no'nia,  of  which  he  died,  to  the  great  regret  of  his  subjects, 
and  the  irreparable  loss  of  the  Roman  empire. 

20.  Upon  the  death  of  Clau'dius,  Aure'lian  was  acknow- 
u.  c.  1023.  >  ledged  by  all  the  states  of  the  empire,  and  as- 
A.  D.  270.  5  sumed  the  command  with  a  greater  share  of 
power  than  his  predecessors  had  enjoyed  for  a  long  time  be- 
fore. 21.  This  active  monarch  was  of  mean  and  obscure 
parentage  in  Da'cia,  and  about  fifty-five  years  old  at  the  time 
of  his  coming  to  the  throne.  He  had  spent  the  early  part 
of  his  life  in  the  army,  and  had  risen  through  all  the  grada- 
tions of  military  rank.  He  was  of  unshaken  courage  and 
amazing  strength.  He,  in  one  engagement,  killed  forty  of 
the  enemy  with  his  own  hand  ;  and  at  different  times  above 
nine  hundred.  In  short,  his  valour  and  expedition  were 
such,  that  he  Avas  compared  to  Julius  Caesar ;  and,  in  fact, 
only  wanted  mildness  and  clemency  to  be  every  way  his 
equal.  22.  Among  those  who  were  compelled  to  submit  to 
his  power,  was  the  famous  Zeno'bia,  queen  of  Palmy 'ra. 
He  subdued  her  country,  destroyed  her  city,  and  took  her 


THE    EMPIRE.  345 

prisoner.  Longi'nus,  the  celebrated  critic,  who  was  secre- 
tary to  the  queen,  was  by  Aure'lian's  order  put  to  death. 
Zcno'bia  was  reserved  to  grace  his  triumph  ;  and  afterwards 
was  allotted  such  lands,  and  such  an  income,  as  served  to 
maintain  her  in  almost  her  former  splendour.  23.  But  the 
emperor's  severities  were  at  last  the  cause  of.  his  own  de- 
struction. Mnes'theus,  his  principal  secretary,  having  been 
threatened  by  him  for  some  fault  which  he  had  committed, 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  and  as  the  emperor  passed, 
with  a  small  guard,  from  Ura'clea,  in  Thrace,  towards  By- 
zan'tium,  the  conspirators  set  upon  him  at  once  and  slew 
him,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  after  a  very  active  reign 
of  almost  five  years. 

24.  After  some  time  the  senate  made  choice  of  Ta'citus, 
a  man  of  great  merit,  and  no  way  ambitious  C  u.  c.  1028. 
of  the  honours  that  were  offered  him,  being  at  ^  A.  D.  275. 
that  time  seventy-five  years  old.  25.  A  reign  begun  witli 
much  moderation  and  justice,  only  wanted  continuance  to 
have  made  his  subjects  happy :  but  after  enjoying  the  empire 
about  six  months,  he  died  of  a  fever  in  his  march  to  oppose 
the  Persians  and  Scyth'ians,  who  had  invaded  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  empire.  26.  During  this  short  period  the  senate 
seemed  to  have  possessed  a  large  share  of  authority,  and  the 
histories  of  the  times  are  liberal  of  their  praises  to  such 
emperors  as  were  thus  willing  to  divide  their  power. 

27.  Upon  the  death  of  Ta'citus,  his  half-brother  took  upon 
himself  the  title  of  emperor,  in  Cile'sia :  but  being  twice 
defeated  by  Pro'bus,  he  killed  himself  in  despair,  when  the 
whole  army,  as  if  by  common  consent,  cried  out  that  Pro'- 
bus should  be  emperor.  28.  He  was  then  forty-four  years 
old  ;  was  born  of  noble  parentage,  and  bred  a  soldier.  He 
began  early  to  distinguish  himself  for  his  discipline  and  va- 
lour :  being  frequently  the  first  man  that  scaled  the  walls, 
or  that  burst  into  the  enemy's  camp.  He  was  equally  re- 
markable for  single  combat,  and  for  having  saved  the  lives 
of  many  eminent  citizens.  Nor  were  his  activity  and  cour- 
age when  elected  to  the  empire  less  apparent  than  in  his 
private  station.  29.  Every  year  now  produced  new  calami- 
ties to  the  state ;  and  fresh  irruptions  on  every  side  threat- 
ened universal  desolation.  Perhaps  at  this  time  no  abilities, 
except  those  of  Pro'bus,  were  capable  of  opposing  such 
united  invasions.  30.  However,  in  the  end,  his  own  mu- 
tinous soldiers,  taking  their  opportunity,  as  he  was  marching 
into  Greece,  seized  and  slew  him,  after  he  had  reigned  bix 


346  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

years  and  four  months  with  general  approbation.     He  was 
succeeded  by  Ca'rus. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Did  Philip  succeed  without  opposition? 

2.  Was  his  reign  of  long  duration  1 

3.  What  was  the  character  of  Decius  ? 

4.  Did  he  restore  the  empire  to  its  former  grandeur  ? 

5.  What  was  his  end  1 

6.  Who  succeeded  him? 

7.  What  was  his  character  ? 

8.  What  farther  calamities  distinguished  this  reign  ? 

9.  What  effect  had  this  news  on  Gallus  1 

1 0.  Who  succeeded  Gallus  1 

1 1 .  What  were  his  first  acts  and  their  effects  ? 

12.  What  disaster  befel  him? 

13.  How  was  he  treated  in  captivity  ? 

14.  Did  he  long  suvive  this  cruelty  1 

15.  Who  succeeded  him? 

16.  Was  Galienus  the  only  pretender  to  the  throne1? 

17.  What  measures  did  Galienus  adopt  on  this  ? 

18.  Who  succeeded  Galienus  ? 

1 9.  What  were  his  character  and  end  ] 

20.  Who  succeeded  Claudius  ? 

21.  Who  was  Aurelian? 

22.  Over  whom  did  he  triumph? 

23.  What  occasioned  his  destruction? 

24.  Who  succeeded  Aurelian  ? 

25.  Did  he  govern  well  ? 

26.  What  distinguished  his  reign  t 

27.  Who  succeeded  Tacitus  ? 

28.  What  were  the  qualifications  of  Probus? 

29.  What  was  the  state  of  the  empire  at  this  time1 
SO.  What  was  the  end  of  Probus  ? 


SECTION  V. 
\j.  c,  1035. — A.  D.  282. 

f  1.  CA'RUS,  who  was  praetorian  prefect  to  the  deceased 
emperor,  was  chosen  by  the  army  to  succeed  him ;  and  he, 
to  strengthen  his  authority,  united  his  two  sons,  Cari'nus 
and  Nume'rian,  with  him  in  command  ;  the  elder  of  whom 
was  as  much  sullied  by  his  vices,  as  the  younger  was  re- 
markable for  his  virtues,  his  modesty,  and  courage. 

2    The  next  object  of  Ca'rus  was  to  punish  the  mur- 


THE    EMPIRE.  347 

derers  of  Pro 'bus,  and  procure  public  tranquillity  Several 
nations  of  the  west  having  revolted,  he  sent  his  son  Cari'nus 
against  them,  and  advanced  himself  against  the  Sarma'tians, 
whom  he  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  sixteen  thousand  men 
killed,  and  twenty  thousand  prisoners.  Soon  after  this  he 
entered  Persia,  and  removed  to  Mesopota'mia.  Vera'nes 
the  second,  king  of  Persia,  advancing  against  him,  was  de- 
feated, and  lost  Ctes'iphon,  his  capital.  This  conquest 
gained  Ca'nis  the  surname  of  Per'sicus ;  but  he  had  not 
enjoyed  it  long,  when  he  was  struck  dead,  by  lightning,  in 
his  tent,  with  many  of  his  attendants,  after  a  reign  of  about 
sixteen  months.  Upon  the  death  of  Ca'rus,  the  imperial 
power  devolved  on  his  sons  Cari'nus  and  Nume'rian,  \vlio 
reigned  jointly.  In  the  first  year  of  their  accession,  having 
made  peace  with  the  Persians,  Cari'nus  advanced  against 
Ju'lian,  who  had  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  in  Vene'- 
tia,*  and  whom  he  defeated ;  when  he  returned  again  into 
Gaul. 

3.  Cari'nus  was  at  this  time  in  Gaul,  but  Nume'rian,  the 
younger  son,  who  accompanied  his  father  in  his  expedition 
was  inconsolable  for  his  death,  and  brought  such  a  disorder 
upon  his  eyes,  with  weeping,  that  he  was  obliged  to  be  car- 
ried along  with  the  army,  shut  up  in  a  close  litter.  4.  The 
peculiarity  of  his  situation,  after  some  time,  excited  the 
ambition  of  A 'per,  his  father-in-law,  who  supposed  that  he 
could  now,  without  any  great  danger,  aim  at  the  empire 
himself.  He  therefore  hired  a  mercenary  villain  to  murder 
the  emperor  in  his  litter ;  and,  the  better  to  conceal  the  fact, 
gave  out  that  he  was  still  alive,  but  unable  to  endure  the 
light.  5.  The  offensive  smell,  however,  of  the  body,  at 
length  discovered  the  treachery,  and  excited  an  universal 
uproar  throughout  the  whole  army.  6.  In  the  midst  of  this 
tumult,  Diocle'sian,  one  of  the  most  noted  commanders  of 
his  time,  was  chosen  emperor,  and  with  his  own  hand  slew 
A'per,  having  thus,  as  it  is  said,  fulfilled  a  prophecy,  that 
Diocle'sian  should  be  emperor  after  he  had  slain  a  boar.t 

7.  Diocle'sian  was  a  person  of  mean  birth ;  he  received 
his  name  from  Dio'clea,  the  town  in  which  Cc.  c.  1057. 
he  was  born,  and  was  about  forty  years  old  £  A.  D.  284. 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  empire.  He  owed  his  exalta- 
tion entirely  to  his  merit ;  having  passed  through  all  the 
gradations  of  office  with  sagacity,  courage,  and  success. 

•  Now  called  Venice.  f  A'pcr  signifies  a  boar, 


348  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

8.  In  his  time,  the  northern  hive,  as  it  was  was  called, 
poured  down  its  swarms  of  barbarians  upon  the  Roman 
empire.  Ever  at  war  with  the  Romans,  they  issued  forth 
whenever  that  army  that  was  to  repress  their  invasions  was 
called  away;  and  upon  its  icturn,  they  as  suddenly  with- 
drew into  their  cold,  barren,  and  inaccessible  retreats,  which 
themselves  alone  could  endure.  9.  In  this  manner  the 
Scyth'ians,  Goths,  Sarma'tians,  Ala'ni,  Car'sii,  and  Qua'di, 
came  down  in  incredible  numbers,  while  every  defeat  seemed 
but  to  increase  their  strength  and  perseverance.  10.  After 
gaining  many  victories  over  these,  and  in  the  midst  of  his 
triumphs,  Diocle'sian  and  Maxim'ian,  his  partners  in  the 
empire,  surprised  the  world  by  resigning  their  dignities  on 
the  same  day,  and  both  retiring  into  private  stations.  11.  In 
this  manner  Diocle'sian  lived  some  time,  and  at  length  died 
either  by  poison  or  madness,  but  by  which  of  them  is  uncer- 
tain. His  reign  of  twenty  years  was  active  and  useful ;  and 
his  authority,  which  was  tinctured  with  severity,  was  adapted 
to  the  depraved  state  of  morals  at  that  time. 

12.  Upon  the  resignation  of  the  two  emperors,  the  two 
r.  c.  1057.  7  Caesars,  whom  they  had  before  chosen,  were 
A.  D.  304.  )  universally  acknowledged  as  their  successors, 
namely,  Constan'tius  Chlo'rus,  so  called  from  the  paleness 
of  his  complexion,  a  man  virtuous,  valiant,  and  merciful; 
and  Gele'rius,  who  was  brave,  but  brutal,  incontinent  and 
cruel.  13.  As  there  was  such  a  disparity  in  their  tempers, 
they  readily  agreed,  upon  coming  into  full  power,  to  divide 
the  empire.  Constan'tius  was  appointed  to  govern  the 
western  parts,  and  died  at  York,  in  Britain,  A.  D.  396,  ap- 
pointing Con'stantine,  his  son,  as  his  successor.  Gale'rius 
was  seized  with  a  very  extraordinary  disorder,  which  baffled 
the  skill  of  his  physicians,  and  carried  him  off. 

14.  Con'stantine,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Great,  had 
u.  c.  1064.  7  some  competitors  at  first  for  the  throne. — 
A.D.  311.  5  Among  the  rest  was  Maxen'tius,  who  was  at 
that  time  in  possession  of  Rome,  and  a  stedfast  assertor  of 
Paganism.  15.  It  was  in  Constantine's  march  against  that 
usurper,  we  are  told,  that  he  was  converted  to  Christianity, 
by  a  very  extraordinary  appearance.  16.  One  evening,  the 
army  being  on  its  march  towards  Rome,  Constantino  was 
intent  on  various  considerations  upon  the  fate  of  sublunary 
things,  and  the  dangers  of  his  approaching  expedition. 
Sensible  of  his  own  incapacity  to  succeed  without  divine 
issistance,  he  employed  his  meditations  upon  the  opinions 


THE   EMPIRE.  349 

that  weir  then  agitated  among  mankind,  and  sent  tip  his 
ejaculations  to  heaven  to  inspire  him  with  wisdom  to  choose 
the  path  he  should  pursue.  As  the  sun  was  declining,  there 
suddenly  appeared  a  pillar  of  light  in  the  heavens,  in  the 
fashion  of  a  cross,  with  this  inscription,  EN  TOrrn  NIKA,  IN 
THIS  OVERCOME.  17.  So  extraordinary  an  appearance  did 
not  fail  to  create  astonishment,  both  in  the  emperor  and  his 
whole  army,  who  reflected  on  it  as  their  various  disposi- 
tions led  them  to  believe.  Those  who  were  attached  to 
Paganism,  prompted  by  their  aruspices,  pronounced  it  to 
be  a  most  inauspicious  omen,  portending  the  most  unfor- 
tunate events  ;  but  it  made  a  different  impression  on  th« 
emperor's  mind  ;  who,  as  the  account  goes,  was  farther  en- 
couraged by  visions  the  same  night,  18.  He,  therefore,  the 
day  following,  caused  a  royal  standard  to  be  made,  like  that 
which  he  had  seen  in  the  heavens,  and  commanded  it  to  be 
carried  before  him  in  his  wars,  as  an  ensign  of  victory  and 
celestial  protection.  After  this  he  consulted  with  the  prin- 
cipal teachers  of  Christianity,  and  made  a  public  avowal  of 
that  holy  religion. 

19.  Con'stantine  having  thus  attached  his  soldiers  to  his 
interest,  who  were  mostly  of  the  Christian  persuasion,  lost 
no  time  in  entering  Italy,  with  ninety  thousand  foot  and 
eight  thousand  horse,  and  soon  advanced  almost  to  the  very 
gates  of  Rome.  Maxen'tius  advanced  from  the  city  with  an 
army  of  a  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  foot,  and  eighteen 
thousand  horse.  20.  The  engagement  was  fierce  and 
bloody,  till  the  cavalry  of  the  latter  being  routed,  victory 
declared  upon  the  side  of  his  opponent,  and  he  himself  w:\s 
drowned  in  his  flight  by  the  breaking  down  of  a  bridge,  as 
lie  attempted  to  cross  the  Tiber. 

21.  In  consequence  of  this  victory,  Con'stantine  entered 
the  city,  but  disclaimed  all  the  praises  which  the  senate  and 
people  were  ready  to  offer  ;  and  ascribed  his  successes  to  a 
superior  power.  He  even  caused  the  cross,  which  he  was 
said  to  have  seen  in  the  heavens,  to  be  placed  at  the  right 
hand  of  all  his  statues,  with  this  inscription  :  "  That  under 
the  influence  of  that  Victorious  Cross,  Con'stantine  had 
delivered  the  city  from  the  yoke  of  tyrannical  power,  and 
had  restored  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome  to  their  ancient 
authority."  He  afterwards  ordained  that  no  criminal  tOionld, 
for  the  future,  suffer  death  upon  the  cross,  which  had  for- 
merly been  the  most  usual  way  of  punishing  slaves  cnn 
victed  of  capital  offences.  22.  Edicts  were  soon  after  issued, 
2G 


350  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

declaring  that  the  Christians  should  be  cased  of  all  their 
grievances,  and  received  into  places  of  trust  and  authority. 

23.  Things  continued  in  this  state  for  some  time.  Con'- 
stantine  contributing  every  thing  in  his  power  to  the  interest 
of  religion,  and  the  revival  of  learning,  which  had  long  been 
upon  the  decline,  and  was  almost  wholly  extinct  in  his  do- 
minions. 24.  But,  in  the  midst  of  these  assiduities,  the 
peace  of  the  empire  was  again  disturbed  by  the  preparations 
of  Maxim'ian,  who  governed  in  the  east ;  and  who,  desirous 
of  a  full  participation  of  power,  marched  against  Licin'ius 
with  a  very  numerous  army.  25.  In  consequence  of  this 
step,  after  many  conflicts,  a  general  engagement  ensued,  in 
which  Maxim'ian  suffered  a  total  defeat ;  many  of  his 
troops  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  those  that  survived  submitted 
to  the  conqueror.  Having,  however,  escaped  the  general 
carnage,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  another  army,  resolv- 
ing to  try  the  fortune  of  the  field ;  but  his  death  prevented 
the  design.  26.  As  he  died  by  a  very  extraordinary  kind 
of  madness,  the  Christians,  of  whom  he  was  the  declared 
enemy,  did  not  fail  to  ascribe  his  end  to  a  judgment  from 
heaven.  But  this  was  the  age  in  which  false  opinions  and 
false  miracles  made  up  the  bulk  of  every  history. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  Who  succeeded  Probus? 

2.  Mention  the  actions  of  Carus,  and  the  manner  of  his  death  1 

3.  How  were  his  sons  affected  by  this  catastrophe  ? 

4.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

5.  How  was  this  atrocious  act  discovered  ? 

6.  Did  Aper  reap  the  reward  of  this  treachery  ? 

7.  Who  was  Dioclesian? 

8.  By  whom  was  the  empire  now  invaded  ? 

9.  Were  they  effectually  repelled  1 

10.  What  remarkable  event  now  occurred  1 

11.  What  was  the  end  of  Dioclesian  ? 

12.  Who  succeeded  Dioclesian  and  Maximian? 

1 3.  How  did  they  conduct  the  administration  1 

14.  Did  Constantme  succeed  without  any  opposition? 

15.  Did  not  a  remarkable  occurrence  happen  about  this  time  ? 

16.  Repeat  the  particulars? 

17.  What  effect  had  this  appearance  on  the  emperor  and  his  men  1 

18.  What  orders  did  he  issue  in  consequence  ? 

1 9.  What  was  the  respective  strength  of  the  hostile  armies  ? 

20.  What  was  the  result  of  the  engagement  ? 

21.  What  use  did  Constantino  make  of  his  victory? 


THE    EMPIRE.  351 


22.  What  edicts  did  he  publish  on  the  occasion  ? 

23.  How  was  Constantine  employed  after  this  1 

24.  Did  the  peace  long  continue  ? 

25.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

26.  To  what  was  his  death  ascribed ! 


SECTION  VI. 

1.  CON'STANTINE  and  Licin'ius  thus  remaining  undis- 
puted possessors  of,  and  partners  in  the  empire,  all  things 
promised  a  peaceable  continuance  of  friendship  and  power. 
2.  However,  it  was  soon  found  that  the  same  ambition  that 
aimed  after  a  part,  would  be  content  with  nothing  less  than 
the  whole.  Pagan  writers  ascribe  the  rupture  between 
these  two  potentates  to  Con'stantine ;  while  the  Christians, 
on  the  other  hand,  impute  it  wholly  to  Licin'ius.  3.  Both 
sides  exerted  all  their  power  to  gain  the  ascendancy ;  and  at 
the  head  of  very  formidable  armies  came  to  an  engagement 
near  Cy'balis,  in  Panno'nia.  4.  Con'stantine,  previous  to 
the  battle,  in  the  midst  of  his  Christian  bishops,  begged  the 
assistance  of  heaven ;  while  Licin'ius,  with  equal  zeal, 
called  upon  the  Pagan  priests  to  intercede  with  the  gods  in 
their  favour.  5.  The  success  was  on  the  side  of  truth. 
Con'stantine,  after  experiencing  an  obstinate  resistance,  be- 
came victorious,  took  the  enemy's  camp,  and  after  some 
time  compelled  Licin'ius  to  sue  for  a  truce,  which  was 
agreed  upon.  6.  But  this  was  of  no  long  continuance  ;  for, 
soon  after,  the  war  breaking  out  afresh,  the  rivals  came 
once  more  to  a  general  engagement,  and  it  proved  decisive. 
Licin'ius  was  entirely  defeated,  and  pursued  by  Con'stan- 
tine into  Nicome'dia,  where  he  surrendered  himself  up  to 
the  victor ;  having  first  obtained  an  oath  that  his  life  should 
be  spared,  and  that  he  should  be  permitted  to  pass  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  in  retirement.  7.  This,  however,  Con'- 
stantine shortly  after  broke ;  for  either  fearing  his  designs, 
or  finding  him  actually  engaged  in  fresh  conspiracies,  ho 
commanded  him  to  be  put  to  death,  together  with  Mar'tian, 
his  general,  who  some  time  before  had  been  created  Caesar. 

8.  Con'stantine  being  thus  become  sole  monarch,  re- 
solved to  establish  Christianity  on  so  sure  a  basis  that  no 
new  revolution  should  shake  it.  He  commanded  that,  in  nil 
the  provinces  of  the  empire,  the  orders  of  the  bishops  should 
be  implicitly  obeyed.  He  called  also  a  general  council,  in 


352  HISTORY    OP    ROME. 

order  to  repress  the  heresies  that  had  already  crept  into  the 
church,  particularly  that  of  A'rius.  9.  To  this  council,  at 
which  he  presided  in  person,  repaired  about  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  bishops,  besides  a  multitude  of  presbyters 
and  deacons ;  who  all,  except  about  seventeen,  concurred 
in  condemning  the  tenets  of  A'rius,  who,  with  his  associ 
ates,  was  banished  into  a  remote  part  of  the  empire. 

10.  Thus  he  restored  universal  tranquillity  to  his  domi- 
nions, but  was  not  able  to  ward  off  calamities  of  a  more  do- 
mestic nature.    As  the  wretched  historians  of  this  period  are 
entirely  at  variance  with  each  other,  it  is  not  easy  to  ex- 
plain the  motives  which  induced  him  to  put  his  wife  Faus'ta, 
and  his  son  Cris'pus,  to  death. 

11.  But  it  is  supposed,  that  all  the  good  he  did  was  not 
equal  to  the  evil  the  empire  sustained  by  his  transferring  the 
imperial  seat  from  Rome  to  Byzan'tium,  or  Constantino'ple, 
as  it  was  afterwards  called.    12.  Whatever  might  have  been 
the  reasons  which  induced  him  to  this  undertaking  ;  whether 
it  was  because  he  was  offended  at  some  affronts  he  had  re- 
ceived at  Rome,  or  that  he  supposed  Constantino'ple  more 
in  the  centre  of  the  empire,  or  that  he  thought  the  eastern 
parts  more  required  his  presence,  experience  has  shown  that 
they  were  all  weak  and  groundless.     13.  The  empire  had 
long  before  been  in  a  most  declining  state :  but  this,  in  a 
great  measure,  gave  precipitation  to  its  downfall.    After  this, 
it  never  resumed  its  former  splendour,  but,  like  a  flower 
transplanted  into  a  foreign  clime,  languished  by  degrees,  and 
at  length  sunk  into  nothing. 

14.  At  first,  his  design  was  to  build  a  city,  which  he 
might  make  the  capital  of  the  world :  and  for  this  purpose 
he  made  choice  of  a  situation  at  Chal'cedon,  in  Asia  Minor  ; 
but  we  are  told  that,  in  laying  out  the  ground  plan,  an  eagle 
caught  up  the  line,  and  flew  with  it  over  to  Byzan'tium,  a 
city  which  lay  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Bosphorus.  15. 
Here,  therefore,  it  was  thought  expedient  to  fix  the  seat  of 
empire ;  and,  indeed,  nature  seemed  to  have  formed  it  with 
all  the  conveniences,  and  all  the  beauties  which  might  in- 
duce power  to  make  it  the  seat  of  residence. 

16.  It  was  situated  on  a  plain,  that  rose  gently  from  the 
water  :  it  commanded  that  strait  which  unites  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  the  Euxine  sea,  and  was  furnished  with  all  the 
advantages  which  the  most  indulgent  climate  could  bestow. 

1**.  The  city,  therefore,  he  beautified  with  the  most  mag- 
nificent edifices  ;  he  divided  it  into  fourteen  regions ;  built 


THE    EMPIRE.  353 

a  capitol,  an  amphitheatre,  many  churches,  Cu.  c.  1084. 
and  other  public  works ;  and  having  thus  £  A.  D.  330. 
rendered  it  equal  to  the  magnificence  of  his  first  idea,  he 
dedicated  it  in  a  very  solemn  manner  to  the  God  of  martyrs ; 
and  in  about  two  years  after  repaired  thither  with  his  whole 
court. 

18.  This  removal  produced  no  immediate  alteration  in 
the  government  of  the  empire.  The  inhabitants  of  Rome, 
though  with  reluctance,  submitted  to  the  change  ;  nor  was 
there,  for  two  or  three  years,  any  disturbance  in  the  state, 
until  at  length  the  Goths,  finding  that  the  Romans  had  with- 
drawn all  their  garrisons  along  the  Danube,  renewed  their 
inroads,  and  ravaged  the  country  with  unheard-of  cruelty. 
19.  Con'stantine,  however,  soon  repressed  their  incursions, 
and  so  straitened  them,  that  nearly  a  hundred  thousand  of 
their  number  perished  by  cold  and  hunger. 

20.  Another  great  error  ascribed  to  him  is,  the  dividing 
the  empire  among  his  sons.  Con'stantine,  the  emperor's 
eldest  son,  commanded  in  Gaul  and  the  western  provinces ; 
Constan'tius,  the  second,  governed  Africa  and  Illyr'icum ; 
and  Con'stans,  the  youngest,  ruled  in  Italy.  21.  This  di- 
vision of  the  empire  still  further  contributed  to  its  downfall ; 
for  the  united  strength  of  the  state  being  no  longer  brought 
to  repress  invasion,  the  barbarians  fought  with  superior 
numbers,  and  conquered  at  last,  though  often  defeated. 
AVhen  Con'stantine  was  above  sixty  years  old,  and  had 
reigned  about  thirty,  he  found  his  health  decline. 

22.  His  disorder,  which  was  an  ague,  increasing,  he  wont 
to  Nicome'dia,  where,  finding  himself  without  hopes  of  a 
recovery,  he  caused  himself  to  be  baptised.  He  soon  after 
received  the  sacrament,  and  expired. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  state  of  the  empire  at  this  period 7 

2.  Was  this  peace  lasting,  and  by  whom  was  it  broken  1 

3.  Was  the  contest  likely  to  be  vigorous? 

4.  In  what  way  did  the  two  emperors  prepare  for  the  conflict  7 

5.  What  was  the  result  7 

6.  Was  this  truce  religiously  observed  7 

7.  Did  Constantine  fulfil  his  engagement  7 

8.  What  was  Constantino's  resolution  on  becoming  sole  monarch,  and 

what  steps  did  he  take  7 

0.  By  whom  was  it  attended,  and  what  was  the  result  7 
10.  Was  he  happy  in  hit  domestic  relations  7 
2  o  2 


354  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

1 1.  Was  the  removal  of  the  scat  of  the  empire  beneficial  to  the  state? 

12.  Were  his  reasons  for  doing  so  well  grounded? 

13.  What  was  the  consequence  1 

14.  What  was  his  original  intention,  and  what  induced  him  to  alter  it , 

15.  Was  it  a  convenient  spot  ? 

16.  Describe  its  situation. 

17.  What  alteration  did  he  make,  and  to  whom  was  it  dedicated  ! 

1 8.  What  was  the  immediate  effect  of  this  transfer  1 

19.  Were  they  vigorously  opposed? 

20.  Of  what  error  is  Constantine  accused  besides  1 

21.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  division  1 

22.  Relate  the  particulars  of  his  death. 


Dr.  Goldsmith  having  concluded  his  History  too  abruptly,  it  has  been 
thought  advisable  to  cancel  his  last  Chapter,  and  substitute  the  fol- 
io-wing brief  notice  of  the  events  which  occurred  from  the  death  of 
Constantine  to  thejinal  extinction  of  the  Empire  of  the  West. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM     THE    DEATH    OF    CONSTANTINE    TO    THE    RE-UNION    OF 
THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE    UNDER   THEODOSIUS    THE    GREAT. 

1.  THE  character  of  the  prince  who  removed  the  seat  of 
empire  and  made  a  complete  revolution  in  the  civil  and  reli- 
gious institutions  of  his  country,  is  naturally  one  on  which 
the  opinions  of  historians  are  divided,  according  to  their  sen- 
timents respecting  the  great  changes  that  he  effected.  The 
heathen  writers  describe  him  as  a  monster  of  tyranny ;  the 
Christian  fathers  are  anxious  to  conceal  his  faults  and  exag- 
gerate his  virtues,  as  if  the  nature  of  Christianity  was  in 
some  degree  affected  by  the  character  of  its  first  and  greatest 
patron.  The  truth  is,  that  the  character  of  Constantine,  like 
that  ol'  other  great  conquerors,  varied  with  the  circumstances 
of  his  life.  While  engaged  in  the  contest  for  empire,  while 
employed  in  making  unparalleled  political  changes,  he  dis- 
played the  fortitude  of  a  hero,  and  wisdom  of  a  legislator ; 
but  when  complete  success  reduced  him  to  inactivity,  when 
his  vigorous  mind  was  no  longer  stimulated  by  fear  or  hope, 
prosperity  roused  all  his  bad  passions  by  affording  an  oppor- 
tunity for  their  indulgence ;  and  the  virtues  which  had  insured 


THE    EMPIRE.  355 

victory  disappeared  when  there  was  no  longer  any  stimulus 
to  rouse  them  into  action.  The  fourteen  years  of  profound 
peace  that  preceded  the  emperor's  death,  form  a  period  of 
great  external  splendour,  but  of  real  and  rapid  decay  ;  the 
court  was  distinguished  at  once  by  avarice  and  prodigality  ; 
the  money  raised  by  heavy  taxes,  unknown  in  former  ages,  was 
lavished  on  unworthy  favourites  or  wasted  in  idle  exhibitions 
of  magnificence.  2-  A  mind  relaxed  by  prosperity  is  pecu- 
liarly open  to  suspicion ;  the  ears  of  the  monarch  were 
greedily  lent  to  every  tale  brought  to  him  by  malignant  spies 
and  informers ;  such  encouragement  increased  the  number 
of  those  wretches  ;  every  street  and  almost  every  house  in 
the  capital,  contained  some  one  ever  on  the  watch  to  pick 
up  any  unguarded  expression  which  might  be  distorted  into 
treason  or  sedition.  It  was  not  likely  that  a  monarch  who 
had  consented  to  the  murder  of  his  own  son,  on  the  most 
groundless  charges,  would  be  more  merciful  to  those  who 
had  no  natural  claims  upon  his  forbearance;  execution  fol- 
lowed execution  with  fearful  rapidity,  until  the  bonds  of  so- 
ciety were  broken,  and  every  man  dreaded  his  neighbour, 
lest  by  misinterpreting  a  word  or  look,  he  should  expose  him 
to  the  indiscriminate  cruelty  of  the  sovereign. 

3.  The  example  of  their  father's  tyranny  produced  an 
effect  on  the  minds  of  his  sons,  which  no  education,  however 
excellent  or  judicious,  could  remove.     Pious  Christian  pas- 
tors, learned  philosophers,  and  venerable  sages  of  the  law, 
were  employed  to  instruct  the  three  princes,  Constant! 'MI 
Constan'tius,  and  Con'stans  ;  but  the  effects  of  their  labours 
never  appeared  in  the  lives  of  their  pupils. 

4.  For  some  reasons  which  it  is  now  impossible  to  dis- 
cover, the  great  Constantine  had  raised  two  of  his  nephews 
to  the  rank  of  princes,  and  placed  them  on  an  equality  with 
his  own  children.     Before  the  emperor's  body  was  consigned 
to  the  tomb,  this  impolitic  arrangement  brought  destruction 
on  the  entire  Flavian  family.     A  forged  scroll  was  produced 
by  the  bishop  of  Nicome'dia,  purporting  to  be  Constantino's 
last  will,  in  which  he  accused  his  brothers  of  having  given 
him  poison,  and  besought  his  sons  to  avenge  his  death.     ."» 
Constan'tius    eagerly   embraced    such    an    opportunity   of 
destroying  the  objects  of  his  jealousy  ;  his  two  uncles,  I 

of  his  cousins,  the  patrician  Opta'lus,  who  married  the  late 
emperor's  sister,  and  the  prefect  Abla'vius,  whose  chief 
crime  was  enormous  wealth,  were  subjected  t<>a  mock  trial, 
and  delivered  to  the  executioner.  Of  so  numerous  a  family 


356  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Gal'lus  and  Julian  alone  were  spared ;  they  owed  their 
safety  to  their  concealment,  until  the  rage  of  the  assassins 
had  abated.  6.  After  this  massacre,  the  three  brothers, 
similar  in  name,  and  more  alike  in  crime,  proceeded  to  di- 
vide their  father's  dominions  :  Constantine  took  for  his  share 
the  new  capital  and  the  central  provinces  •  Thrace  and  the 
East  were  assigned  to  Constan'tius  ;  Con'stans  received 
Italy,  Africa,  and  the  western  Illy'ricum. 

7.  The  weakness  produced  by  this  division  encouraged 
the  enemies  of  the  Romans,  whom  the  dread  of  Constan- 
tine's  power  had  hitherto  kept  quiet,  to  take  up  arms.  Of 
these  the  most  formidable  was  Sa'por  king  of  Persia.  8. 
The  abilities  of  Sapor  showed  that  he  merited  a  throne  ;  he 
had  scarcely  arrived  at  maturity  when  he  led  an  army  against 
Tha'ir  king  of  Arabia,  who  had  harassed  Persia  during  his 
minority  ;  the  expedition  was  completely  successful.  Tha'ir 
was  slain,  and  the  kingdom  subdued.  The  young  conqueror 
did  not  abuse  his  victory ;  he  treated  the  vanquished  with 
such  clemency,  that  the  Arabs  gave  him  the  title  of  Dou- 
lacnaf  or  protector  of  the  nation. 

9.  On  the  death  of  Constantine,  Sa'por  invaded  the  east- 
A.  D.  >  ern  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  ;  he  was  vigor- 
338.  5  ously  opposed  by  Constan'tius,  and  the  war  was 
protracted  during  several  years  with  varying  fortune.  At 
the  battle  of  Sin'gara,  the  Romans  surprised  the  Persian 
camp,  but  were  in  their  turn  driven  from  it  with  great 
slaughter  by  the  troops  which  Sapor  had  rallied .  The  eldest 
son  of  the  Persian  king  was,  however,  brought  off  as  a  pri- 
soner by  the  Romans,  and  the  barbarous  Constan'tius  or- 
dered him  to  be  scourged,  tortured,  and  publicly  executed. 
10.  Though  Sa'por  had  been  victorious  in  the  field,  he  failed 
in  his  chief  design  of  seizing  the  Roman  fortresses  in  Meso- 
pota'mia ;  during  twelve  years  he  repeatedly  besieged  Ni'- 
sibis,  which  had  been  long  the  great  eastern  bulwark  of  the 
empire,  but  was  invariably  baffled  by  the  strength  of  the 
place,  and  the  valour  of  the  garrison.  At  length  both  parties 
became  wearied  of  a  struggle  which  exhausted  their  re- 
sources, and  new  enemies  appearing,  they  resolved  to  con- 
clude a  peace  Sa'por  returned  home  to  repel  an  invasion 
ol  the  Scythians  ;  Constan'tius,  by  the  death  of  his  two  bro- 
thers, found  himself  involved  in  a  civil  war  which  required 
his  undivided  attention. 

1 1  Constan'tine  had  scarcely  been  seated  on  his  throne, 
when  he  attempted  to  wrest  from  Con'stans  some  of  the  pro- 


THK  r.MPiur.  357 

vinces  which  had  been  assigned  as  his  portion.  He  rashly 
U"d  his  army  over  the  Julian  Alps,  and  devastated  the  country 
round  Aquile'ia  where,  falling  into  an  ambuscade,  he  perished 
ing'.oriously.  Con'stans  seized  on  the  inheritance  of  the  d«- 
ceased  prince,  and  retained  it  during  ten  years,  obstinately 
refusing  to  give  any  share  to  his  brother  Constan'tius.  12 
But  the  tyranny  of  Con'stans  at  last  became  insupportable. 
Magnen'tius,  an  enterprising  general,  proclaimed  himself 
emperor,  nnd  his  cause  was  zealously  embraced  by  the  army. 
Con'stans  was  totally  unprepared  for  this  insurrection ;  de- 
serted by  all  except  a  few  favourites,  whom  dread  of  the 
popular  haired  they  had  justly  incurred  prevented  from  de- 
sertion, he  attempted  to  escape  into  Spain,  but  was  over- 
taken at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  murdered.  13.  The 
prefectures  ol  Gaul  and  Italy  cheerfully  submitted  to  the 
usurpation  of  Magnen'tius ;  but  the  legions  of  Illyr'icum 
elected  their  general,  Vetra'nio,  emperor,  and  his  usurpation 
was  sanctioned  by  the  princess  Constanti'na,  who,  regard- 
less of  her  brother's  rights,  placed  the  diadem  upon  his  head 
with  her  own  hands.  14.  The  news  of  these  events 
hastened  the  return  of  Constan'tius  to  Europe ;  on  his  ar- 
rival at  the  capital,  he  received  embassies  from  the  two 
usurpers,  offering  terms  of  accommodation  ;  he  rejected  the 
terms  of  Magnen'tius  with  disdain,  but  entered  into  a  nego- 
ciation  with  Vetra'nio.  The  Illyrian  leader,  though  a  good 
general,  was  a  bad  politician ;  he  allowed  himself  to  be 
duped  by  long  discussions,  until  the  greater  part  of  his  army 
had  been  gained  over  by  Constan'tius ;  he  then  consented 
to  a  personal  interview,  and  had  the  mortification  to  see  his 
soldiers,  with  one  accord,  range  themselves  under  the  ban- 
ners of  their  lawful  sovereign.  Vetra'nio  immediately  fell 
at  the  feet  of  Constan'tius,  and  tendered  his  homage,  which 
was  cheerfully  accepted  ;  he  was  not  only  pardoned,  but  re- 
warded ;  the  city  of  Pru'sa,  in  Bythnia,  was  allotted  to  him 
as  a  residence,  and  a  pension  assigned  for  his  support.  15. 
The  war  against  Magnen'tius  was  maintained  with  great  ob- 
stinacy, but  at  first  with  little  success  ;  the  emperor  was  con- 
fined in  his  fortified  camp,  while  the  troops  of  the  usurper 
swept  the  surrounding  country,  and  captured  several  import- 
ant posts.  Constan'tius  was  so  humbled,  that  he  even  pro- 
posed a  treaty,  but  the  terms  on  which  Mairucii'tius  insisted 
were  so  insulting,  that  the  emperor  determined  to  encounter 
the  hazard  of  a  battle.  Scarcely  had  he  formed  this  resolu- 
tion, when  his  army  was  strengthened  by  the  accession  of 


358  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

Sylva'nus,  a  general  of  some  reputation,  who,  with  a  large 
body  of  cavalry,  deserted  from  the  enemy.   - 

16.  The  decisive  battle  betAveen  the  competitors  for  the 
empire,  was  fought  under  the  walls  of  Mur'sa,  a  city  on  the 
river  Drave.     Magnen'tius  attempted  to  take  the  place  by 
storm,  but  was  repulsed ;  and  almost  at  the  same  moment, 
the  imperial  legions  were  seen  advancing  to  raise  the  siege. 
The  army  of  Magnen'tius  consisted  of  the  western  legions 
that  had  already  acquired  fame  in  the  wars  of  Gaul ;  with 
battalions  of  Germans  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  that  had  of 
late  years  been  incorporated  with  the  regular  forces.    In  ad- 
dition to  the  imperial  guards,  Constan'tius  had  several  troops 
of  those  oriental  archers,  whose  skill  with  the  bow  was  so 
justly  celebrated ;  but  far  the  most  formidable  part  of  his 
army  were  his  mail-clad  cuirassiers,  whose  scaly  armour, 
and  ponderous  lances,  made  their  charge  almost  irresistible. 
The  cavalry  on  the  emperor's  left  wing  commenced  the  en- 
gagement, and  broke  through  the  Gallic  legions  in  the  first 
charge  ;  the  hardy  veterans  again  rallied,  were  again  charged, 
and  again  broken ;  at  length,  before  they  could  form  their 
lines,  the  light  cavalry  of  the  second  rank  rode,  sword  in 
hand,  through  the  gaps  made  by  the  cuirassiers,  and  com- 
pleted their  destruction.     Meantime,  the  Germans  and  bar- 
barians stood  exposed,  with  almost  naked  bodies,  to  the  de- 
structive shafts  of  the  oriental  archers  ;  whole  troops,  stung 
with  anguish  and  despair,  threw  themselves  into  the  rapid 
stream  of  the  Drave,  and  perished.     Ere  the  sun  had  set, 
the  army  of  Magnen'tius  was  irretrievably  ruined  ;  fifty-four 
thousand  of  the  vanquished  were  slain,  and  the  loss  of  the 
conquerors  is  said  to  have  been  even  greater. 

17.  From  this  battle  the  ruin  of  the  Roman  empire  may 
be  dated  ;  the  loss  of  one  hundred  thousand  of  its  best  and 
bravest  soldiers  could  not  be  repaired,  and  never  again  did 
any  emperor  possess  a  veteran  army  equal  to  that  which  fell 
on  the  fatal  plains  of  Mur'sa.     The  defeat  of  Magnen'tius 
induced  the  Italian  and  African  provinces  to  return  to  their 
allegiance  ;  the  Gauls,  wearied  out  by  the  exactions  which 
distress  forced  the  usurper  to  levy,  refused  to  acknowledge 
his  authority,  and  at  length  his  own  soldiers  raised  the  cry 
of  "  God  save  Constan'tius."     To  avoid  the  disgrace  of  a 
public  execution,  Magnen'tius  committed  suicide,  and  several 
members  of  his  family  imitated  his  example.     The  victor 
punished  with  relentless  severity  all  who  had  shared  in  the 
guilt  of  this  rebellion  ;  and  several  who  had  been  compelled 


THE    EMPIRE.  359 

to  join  in  it  by  force  shared  the  fate  of  those  by  whom  it 
had  been  planned. 

18.  The  Roman  empire  was  now  once  more  united  under 
a  single  monarch ;  but  as  that  prince  was  wholly  destitute- 
of  merit,  his  victory  served  only  to  establish  the  reign  of 
worthless  favourites.     Of  these  the  most  distinguished  was 
the  chamberlain,  Euse'bius,  whose  influence  was  so  great 
that  he  was  considered  the  master  of  the  emperor ;  and  to 
whose  instigation  many  of  the  crimes  committed  by  Con- 
stan'tius  must  be  attributed. 

19.  Gal'lus  and  Ju'lian,  who  had  escaped  in  the  general 
massacre  of  the  Flavian  family,  were  detained  as  prisoners 
of  state  in  a  strong  castle,  which  had  once  been  the  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Cappado'cia.     Their  education  had  not  been 
neglected,  and  they  had  been  assigned  a  household  propor- 
tionate to  the  dignity  of  their  birth.     At  length  the  emer- 
gencies of  the  state  compelled  Constan'tius  to  nominate  an 
associate  in  the  government  of  the  empire  ;  and  Gal'lus  now 
in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  was  summoned  from  his 
retirement,  invested  with  the  title  of  Caesar,  and  married  to 
the    princess  Constan'tina.      20.    The  latter  circumstance 
proved  his  ruin ;    stimulated  by  the  cruel  ambition  of  his 
wife,  he  committed  deeds  of  tyranny,  which  alienated  the 
affections  of  his  subjects,  and  acts  bordering  on  treason,  that 
roused  the  jealousy  of  Constan'tius.     He  was  summoned  to 
appear  at  the  imperial  court  to  explain  his  conduct,  but  was 
seized  on  his  journey,  made  a  close  prisoner,  and  transmit- 
ted to  Po'la  a  town  in  Ist'ria,  where  he  was  put  to  death. 

21.  Julian,  the  last  remnant  of  the  Flavian  family,    was, 
through  the  powerful  intercession  of  the  the  empress,  spared, 
and  permitted  to  pursue  his  studies  in  Athens.     In  that  city, 
where  the  Pagan  philosophy  was  still  publicly  taught,  the 
future  emperor  imbibed  the  doctrines  of  the  heathens,  and 
thus  acquired  the  epithet  of  Apostate,  by  which  he  is  unen- 
viably  known  to  posterity.     Julian  was  soon  recalled  from 
his  retirement,  and  elevated  to  the  station  which  his  unfor- 
tunate brother  had  enjoyed.     His  investiture  with  the  royal 
purple  took  place  at  Milan,  whither  Constantius  had  pro- 
ceeded to  quell  a  new  insurrection  in  the  western  provinces. 

22.  Hefore  the  emperor  returned  to  the  east,  he  determined  to 
revisit  the  ancient  capital ;  and  Rome,  after  an  interval  of 
more  than  thirty  years,  became  for  a  brief  space  the 
dence  the  sovereign.     He  signalized  his  visit  by  presenting 
to  the  city  an  obelisk,  which  at  a  vast  expense  he  procured 


300  HISTORY    OF    HOME. 

to  be  transported  from  Egypt.  23.  The  renewed  efforts  of 
the  Persians  and  other  enemies  of  the  empire  in  the  East, 
recalled  Constan'tius  to  Constantinople,  while  Julian  was 
employed  in  driving  from  Gaul  the  barbarous  tribes  by  which 
it  had  been  invaded.  The  conduct  of  the  young  Caesar,  both 
as  a  soldier  and  a  statesman,  fully  proved  that  literary  habits 
do  not  disqualify  a  person  from  discharging  the  duties  of  ac- 
tive life  ;  he  subdued  the  enemies  that  devastated  the  coun- 
try, and  forced  them  to  seek  refuge  in  their  native  forests  ; 
he  administered  the  affairs  of  state  with  so  much  wisdom, 
temperance,  and  equity,  that  he  acquired  the  enthusiastic 
love  of  his  subjects,  and  richly  earned  the  admiration  of 
posterity.  24.  The  unexpected  glory  obtained  by  Julian, 
awakened  the  jealousy  of  Constan'tius  ;  he  sent  to  demand 
from  him  a  large  body  of  forces,  under  the  pretence  that 
reinforcements  were  wanting  in  the  East;  but  the  soldiers 
refused  to  march,  and  Julian,  after  some  affected  delays, 
sanctioned  their  disobediance.  A  long  negociation,  in  which 
there  was  little  sincerity  on  either  side,  preceded  any  hostile 
step  ;  both  at  length  began  to  put  their  armies  in  motion, 
but  the  horrors  of  civil  war  were  averted  by  the  timely  death 
of  Constan'tius,  who  fell  a  victim  to  fever,  aggravated  by  his 
impatience,  at  a  small  village  near  Tar'sus  in  Cili'cia. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  character  of  Constantine  the  Great? 

2.  Did  any  evil  result  from  the  employment  of  spies  1 

3.  In  what  manner  were  the  sons  of  Constantine  educated  ? 

4.  What  conspiracy  was  formed  against  part  of  the  imperial  family  1 

5.  Did  any  of  the  Flavian  family  escape  from  the  massacre  ? 

6.  How  was  the  empire  divided  between  the  sons  of  Constantine  * 

7.  Who  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  the  empire  ? 

8.  How  did  the  king  of  Persia  beb  ave  in  the  Arabian  war  ? 

9.  What  were  the  chief  events  in  the  war  between  Sapor  and  Con- 

stantius  1 

10.  How  were  Sapor  and  Constaiitius  forced  to  make  peace  ? 
1 1    What  was  the  fate  of  the  younger  Constantine  1 

12.  By  whom  was  Constans  dethroned  1 

13.  What  parties  embraced  the  cause  of  Vetranio? 

14.  How  did  Constantius  treat  the  Illyrian  general  1 

15.  Was  Magnentius  deserted  by  any  of  his  forces'? 

16.  What  were  the  circumstances  of  the  battle  of  Mursa  ? 

17.  What  important  results  were  occasioned  by  this  great  battle? 

18.  Who  was  the  prime  minister  of  Constantius? 

19.  Whom  did  the  emperor  select  as  an  associate  ? 


THE    EMPIRE.  3fll 

20.  How  was  Callus  brought  to  an  untimely  end  * 

21.  Where  was  Julian  educated  ! 

22.  Did  Constantius  visit  Rome  ! 

23.  How  did  Julian  conduct  himself  in  Gaul  ? 

24.  What  led  to  the  war  between  Julian  and  Constantius  T 


SECTION  II. 

1.  JULIAN  was  in  his  thirty-second  year  when  by  the 
death  of  his  cousin  he.  became  undisputed  sovereign  of  the 
Roman  empire ;  his  worst  error  was  his  apostacy  from 
Christianity  ;  he  h«ted  the  religion  he  had  deserted,  and  la- 
boured strenuously  to  substitute  in  its  place  an  idle  system 
which  combined  the  most  rational  part  of  the  old  heathen 
system  with  the  delusive  philosophy  of  the  schools.  Vanity 
was  his  besetting  sin  ;  he  chose  to  be  considered  a  philoso- 
pher rather  than  a  sovereign,  and  to  acquire  that  title  he 
thought  fit  to  reject  the  decencies  of  this  life,  and  the  best 
guide  to  that  which  is  to  come.  A  treatise  is  extant  from 
Julian's  pen,  in  which  he  expatiates  with  singular  comply 
cency  on  the  filth  of  his  beard,  the  length  of  his  nails,  and 
the  inky  blackness  of  his  hands,  as  if  cleanliness  was  in- 
consistent with  the  philosophic  character  !  In  every  other 
respect,  the  conduct  of  Julian  merits  high  praise  ;  he  was 
just,  merciful,  and  tolerant;  though  frequently  urged  to  be- 
come a  persecutor,  he  allowed  his  subjects  that  freedom  of 
opinion  which-he  claimed  for  himself,  unlike  Constan'tius. 
who,  having  embraced  the  Arian  heresy,  treated  his  Catho- 
lic subjects  with  the  utmost  severity.  2.  But,  though  Ju- 
lian would  not  inflict  punishment  for  a  difference  of  opinion, 
he  enacted  several  disqualifying  laws,  by  which  he  laboured 
to  deprive  the  Christians  of  wealth,  of  knowledge,  and  of 
power ;  he  ordered  their  schools  to  be  clflsed,  and  he  jea- 
lously excluded  them  from  all  civil  and  military  offices.  3. 
To  destroy  the  effects  of  tha4  prophecy  in  the  Gospel  to 
which  Christians  may  appeal  as  a  standing  miracle  in  proof 
of  revelation, — the  condition  of  the  Jews, — Julian  deter- 
mined to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  restore  the 
children  of  Israel  to  the  land  of  their  fathers.  Historians 
worthy  of  credit  inform  us,  that  his  plan  was  defeated  by  a 
direct  miraculous  interposition,  and  there  are  few,  historical 
facts  supported  by  more  decisive  testimony  ;  but  even  if  the 
miracle  be  denied,  the  prophecy  must  be  considered  as  hav- 
2  H 


363 


HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


Julian  the  Apostate,  ordering  the  Christian  schools  to  be  closed. 

ing  received  decisive  confirmation,  from  the  acknowledged 
fact,  that  the  emperor  entertained  such  a  design,  and  was  un- 
able to  effect  its  accomplishment.  4.  The  mutual  hatred 
of  the  Pagans  and  Christians  would  probably  have  rekindled 
the  flames  of  civil  war,  had  not  Julian  fallen  in  an  expedi- 
tion against  the  Persians.  5.  The  emperor  triumphantly 
advanced  through  the  dominions  of  Sa'por  as  far  as  the  Ti'- 
gris  ;  but  the  Asiatics,  though  defeated  in  the  field,  adopted 
means  of  defence  more  terrible  to  an  invader  than  arms 
They  laid  waste  the  country,  destroyed  the  villages,  and 
burned  the  crops  in  the  Roman  line  of  inarch  ;  a  burning 
sun  weakened  the  powers  of  the  western  veterans,  and 
when  famine  was  added  to  the  severity  of  the  climate,  their 
sufferings  became  intolerable.  6.  With  a  heavy  heart  Ju- 
lian at  last  gave  orders  to  commence  a  retreat,  and  led  his 
exhausted  soldiers  back  over  the  desert  plains  which  they 
had  already  passed  with  so  much  difficulty.  The  retro- 
grade march  was  terribly  harassed  by  the  light  cavalry  of 
the  Persians,  a  species  of  troops  peculiarly  fitted  for  desul- 
tory warfare.  The  difficulties  of  the  Romans  increased  at 
every  step,  and  the  harassing  attacks  of  their  pursuers  be- 
came more  frequent  and  more  formidable  ;  at  length,  in  a 
skirmish  which  almost  deserved  the  name  of  a  battle,  Julian 
was  mortally  wounded,  and  with  his  loss  the  Romans  dearly 
purchased  a  doubtful  victory. 

7.  In  the  doubt  and  dismay  which  followed  the  death  of 
Julian,  a  few  voices  saluted  Jo'vian,  the  first  of  the  imperial 
domestics,  with  the  title  of  emperor,  and  the  army  ratified 
the  choice.  The  new  sovereign  successfully  repelled  some 
fresh  attacks  of  the  Persians,  but  despairing  of  final  success, 


THE  EMPIRE. 


J63 


JovUo  Uiulog  the  edict  In  favour  of  ChrlitUcit  j. 

he  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Sa'por,  and  purchased  a  peace, 
or  rather  a  long  truce  of  thirty  years,  by  the  cession  of  se- 
veral frontier  provinces.  8.  The  first  care  of  Jo'vian  was 
to  fulfil  the  stipulated  articles ;  the  Roman  garrisons  and 
colonies  so  long  settled  in  the  frontier  towns  tfflt  they  es- 
teemed them  as  their  native  soil,  were  withdrawn  ;  and  the 
Romans  beheld  with  regret  the  omen  of  their  final  destruc- 
tion in  the  first  dismemberment  of  the  empire.  Tl 
edict  in  the  new  reign  contained  a  repeal  of  Julian's  disquali- 
fying laws,  and  a  grant  of  universal  toleration.  This  judi- 
cious measure  at  once  showed  how  ineffectual  had  been  the 
efforts  of  the  late  emperor  to  revive  the  fallen  spirit  of  pa- 
ganism ;  the  temples  were  immediately  deserted,  the 
sacrifices  neglected,  the  priests  left  alone  at  their  altars  ; 
those  who,  to  gratify  the  former  sovereign  assumed  the  dress 
and  title  of  philosophers,  were  assailed  by  such  storms  of 
ridicule,  that  they  laid  aside  the  designation,  shaved  their 
beards,  and  were  soon  undistinguished  in  the  general  mass 
of  society.  9.  Jo'vian  did  not  loin:  survive  this  peaceful 
triumph  of  Christianity ;  after^yreign  of  eight  months,  hft 
was  found  dead  in  his  bed^^Hg  been  suffocated  by  the 
mephitic  vapours  which  a  cBffcoal  fire  extracted  from  the 
fresh  plaster  on  the  walls  of  his  apartment. 

10.  During  ten  days  the  Roman  empire  remained  ^  A-  D- 
without  a  sovereign,  but  finally  the  soldiers  elevated  (  364. 
to  the  imperial  purple,  Valerrtinian,  the  son  of  count  Gra- 
tian,  an  officer  of  distinguished  merit.  He  chose  as  his 
associate  in  the  government  his  brother  Valnis,  whose  only 
claim  seems  to  have  rested  on  fraternal  affection  ;  to  him  he 
entrusted  the  rich  prefecture  of  the  East,  while  he  himself 


364  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

assumed  the  administration  of  the  western  provinces,  and 
fixed  the  seat  of  his  government  at  Milan.  11.  Though  in 
other  respects  cruel,  Valentinian  was  remarkable  for  main- 
taining a  system  of  religious  toleration ;  but  Valens  was  far 
from  pursuing  such  a  laudable  course.  He  had  imbibed  the 
errors  of  Arius,  and  bitterly  persecuted  all  who  remained 
faithful  to  the  Catholic  doctrines.  By  this  unwise  conduct 
he  provoked  a  formidable  rebellion,  which  was  headed  by 
Proco'pius,  an  able  general,  whom  unjust  persecution  had 
stimulated  to  revolt.  12.  The  success  of  the  usurper  was 
at  first  'se  great,  that  Va'lens  was  ready  to  yield  up  his 
throne  p  but  being  dissuaded  from  this  inglorious  resolution, 
he  entrusted  the  conduct  of  the  war  to  the  aged  prefect  Sal- 
lust,  who  had  twice  refused 'the  imperial  diadem.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Proco'pius  soon  deserted  to  those  leaders  whose 
names  were  endeared  to  their  recollections  by  the  remem- 
brance of  former  glories  ;  and  the  unfortunate  leader,  forsaken 
by  all,  was  made  prisoner  and  delivered  to  the  executioner. 

^  13.  Intfhe  mean  time,  Valenti'nian  was  engaged  in  a  des- 
perate warfare  with  the  German  and  other  barbarous  nations, 
who  had  recovered  from  the  losses  which  they  had  suffered 
under^fu'lian.  On  every  frontier  of  the  western  empire 
hord^of  enemies  appeared,  eager  for  plunder,  regardless 
of  their  own  lives,  and  merciless  to  those  of  others.  14. 
The  Picts  and  Scots  rushed  from  the  mountains  of  Caledo'- 
nia  upon  the  colonies  of  North  Britain,  and  devastated  the 
country  with  fire  and  sword,  almost  to  the  walls  of  London. 
The  task  of  quelling  these  incursions  was  entrusted  to  the 
gallant  Theodo'sius,  and  the  event  proved  that  Valentinian 
could  not  have  made  a  better  choice.  In  the  course  of  two 
campaigns,  the  invaders  were  driven  back  to  their  forests, 
and  a  Roman  fleet  sweeping  the  coasts  of  Britain,  made 
them  tremble  fjr  the  safety  of  their  own  retreats. 

15.  The  success  of  the  emperor  against  the  Saxons,  the 
Franks,  the  Alleman'ni,  the  Qua'di,  and  other  tribes  on  the 
Rhine  and  Danube,  was  notSjess  conspicuous  than  that  of 
Theodo'sius  in  Britain.  16.  The  Qua'di,  humbled  by  a 
severe  defeat,  sent  ambassadors  to  deprecate  his  displeasure  ; 
but  while  Valenti'nian  was  angrily  upbraiding  the  deputies 
for  their  unprovoked  hostility,  he  ruptured  a  blood-vessel 
and  died  almost  instantaneously.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 

sons  Gra'tian  and  Valenti'nian  II. 

17.  A  much  more  important  change  took  place  in  the 

cistern  world  ;  the  first  admission  of  the  barbarian  tribes  into 


THE    EMPIRE.  365 


The  body  of  Vilrnl,  found  upon  the  field  of  battle. " 

the  empire,  which  they  finally  destroyed.  The  na-  C  A.  D. 
tion  of  the  Goths  had  been  from  remote  ages  settled  £  376. 
on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  were  by  that  river  dhided 
into  two  nations,  the  Ostrogoths  on  the  east,  and  the  Visi< 
goths  on  the  west.  They  had  for  many  years  enjoyed  th 
blessings  of  profound  peace  under  the  go^rnment  of  t 
king  Herman 'ric,  when  they  were  suddenly  alarmed  by 
appearance  of  vast  hordes  of  unknown  enemies  on  their 
northern  and  eastern  frontiers.  These  were  the  Huns,  a 
branch  of  the  great  Mongolian  race,  which,  from  the  earliest 
time,  had  possessed  the  vast  and  wild  plains  of  Tartary.  Ter- 
rified by  the  numbers,  the  strength,  the  strange  features  and 
implacable  cruelty  of  such  foes,  the  Goths  deserted  their 
country,  almost  without  attempting  opposition,  and  sup- 
plicated the  emperor  Va'lens  to  grant  them  a  settlement 
in  the  waste  lands  of  Thrace.  This  request  was  cheer- 
fully granted,  and  the  eastern  -empire  was  supposed  to  be 
strengthened  by  the  accession  of  a  million  of  valiant  subjects, 
bound  both  by  interest  and  gratitude  to  protect  its  frontiers. 
18.  But  the  avarice  of  Vu'lcns  and  his  ministers  defeated 
these  expectations ;  instead  of  relieving  their  new  subjects, 
the  Roman  governors  took  advantage  of  their  distress  to 
plunder  the  remains  of  their  shattered  fortunes,  and  to  re- 
duce their  children  to  slavery.  Maddened  by  such  oppres- 
sion, the  Goths  rose  in  arms,  and  spread  desolation  over 
the  fertile  plains  of  Thrace.  Va'lens  summoned  his 
nephew,  Gratian,  to  his  assistance  ;  but  before  the  emperor 
of  the  west  arrived,  he  imprudently  riurajrrd  the  Goths  near 
Adrianople,  and  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  fell  on 
2  M  2 


366  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the  field.     19.  This  was  the  most  disastfSus  defeat  which 
the  Romans  had  sustained  for  several  centuries ;  and  there 
•was  reason  to  dread  that  it  would  encourage  a  revolt  of  the 
Gothic  slaves  in  the  eastern  provinces,  which  must  termi- 
nate in  the  ruin  of  the  empire.     To  prevent  such  a  catas- 
trophe, the  senate  of  Constantinople  ordered  a  general  mas- 
sacre of  these  helpless  mortals,  and  their  atrocious  edict  was 
put  into  immediate  execution.     20.  The  Goths  attempted  to 
besiege  both  Adrianople  and  Constantinople,  but,  ignorant 
of  thwart  of  attacking  fortified  places,  they  were  easily  re- 
pelle]^;  but  they  however  succeeded  in  forcing  their  way 
through   the   Thracian   mountains,  and   spread   themselves 
over  the  provinces  to  the  west,  as  far  as  the  Adriatic  sea  and 
the  confines  of  Italy.     The  march  of  the  emperor  Gratian 
had  been  delayed  by  the  hostility  of  the  Alleman'ni,  whom 
he  subdued  in  two  bloody  engagements  ;  but  as  he  advanced 
towards  Adrianople,  fame  brought  the  news  of  his  uncle's 
defeat  and  death,  which  he  found  himself  unable  to  revenge. 
^21.  Feeling  that  the  affairs  of  the  East  required  the  direc- 
Baon  of  a  mind  more  energetic  than  his  own,  he  determined 
^to  invest  with  the  imperial  purple,  Theodo'sius,  the  son  of 
jtkt  general  who  had  rescued  Britain  from  the  barbarians. 
"^rTow  great  must  have  been  his  confidence  in  the  fidelity  of 
his  new  associate,  who  had  a  father's  death  to  revenge  ;  for 
ithe  elder  Theodo'sius,  notwithstanding  his  splendid  services, 
had  fallen  a  victim  to  the  jealous  suspicions  of  the  emperor  ! 

22.  The  reign  of  Theodo'sius  in  the  East  lasted  nearly 
sixteen  years,   and  was  marked  by  a  display  of  unusual 
vigour  and  ability.     He  broke  the  power  of  the  Goths  by 
many  severe  defeats,  and  disunited  their  leading  tribes  by 
crafty  negociations.     But  the  continued  drain  on  the  popu- 
lation, caused  by  the  late  destructive  wars,  compelled  him 
to  recruit  his  forces  among  the  tribes  of  the  barbarians,  and 
a  change  was  thus  made  in  the  character  and  discipline  of 
the  Roman  army,  which  in  a  later  age  produced  the  most 
calamitous  consequences.     The  exuberant  zeal,  which  led 
him  to   persecute  the  Arians  and  the  pagans,  occasioned 
fome  terrible  convulsions,  which  distracted  the  empire,  and 
were  not  quelled  without  bloodshed.     He,  however,  pre- 
served the  integrity  of  the  empire,  and  not  a  province  \vas 
lost  during  his  administration. 

23.  The  valour  which  Gratian  had  displayed  in  the  early 
part  of  his  life,  rendered  the  indolence  and  luxury  to  which 
he  abandoned  himself,  after  the  appointment  of  Theodo'sius, 


THE    EMPIRE.  367 

more  glaring.  The  general  discontent  of  the  army  induced 
Max'imus,  the  governor  of  Britain,  to  raise  the  standard  of 
revolt,  and,  passing  over  to  the  continent,  he  was  joined  by 
the  greater  part  of  the  Gallic  legions.  When  this  rebellion 
broke  out  Oratian  was  enjoying  the  sports  of  the  field  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  and  did  not  discover  nis  dan- 
ger until  it  was  too  late  to  escape.  He  attempted  to  save 
nis  life  by  flight,  but  was  overtaken  by  the  emissaries  of  the 
usurper,  near  Lyons,  and  assassinated.  24.  Theodo'sius 
was  induced  to  make  peace  with  Max'imus,  on  condition 
that  the  latter  should  content  himself  with  the  prefecture  of 
Gaul,  and  should  not  invade  the  territories  of  the  younger 
Valentin'ian.  25.  Ambition  hurried  the  faithless  usurper 
to  his  ruin  ;  having  by  perfidy  obtained  possession  of  the 
passes  of  the  Alps,  lie  led  an  overwhelming  army  into  Italy, 
and  Valenti'nian,  with  his  mother  Justi'na,  were  scarcely 
able,  by  a  hasty  flight,  to  escape  to  the  friendly  court  of 
Theodo'sius. 

26.  The  emperor  of  the  East  readily  embraced  the  rniisc 
of  the  fugitives;  the  numerous  troops  of  barbarian  cavalry, 
which  he  had  taken  into  pay,  enabled  him  to  proceed  wiUi 
a  celerity  which  baffled  all  calculation.  27.  Before  Alaxi- 
mus  could  make  any  preparations  for  his  reception,  Theo- 
dosius  had  completely  routed  his  army,  and  was  already  at 
the  gates  of  Aquilei'a,  where  the  usurper  had  taken'refuge. 
The  garrison,  secretly  disinclined  to  the  cause  of  Maximus, 
made  but  a  faint  resistance,  the  town  was  taken,  and  the 
unfortunate  ruler  led  as  a  captive  into  the  presence  of  hi* 
conqueror,  by  whom  he  was  delivered  to  the  executioner. 

Theodo'sius,  having  re-established  the  authority  of  thn 
youthful  Valentin'ian,  returned  home.  But  the  emperor  of 
the  West  did  not  long  enjoy  his  restored  throne  ;  he  was 
murdered  by  Arbogas'tes,  his  prime  minister,  who  dreaded 
that  the  abilities  displayed  by  the  young  prince  would  en- 
able him,  when  arrived  to  maturity,  to  shake  ofl'the  authority 
of  an  unprincipled  servant.  28.  The  assassin  was  afraid 
himself  to  assume  the  purple,  but  he  procured  the  election 
of  Euge'nius,  a  man  not  wholly  unworthy  of  empire.  Theo- 
do'sius was  called  by  these  events  a  second  time  to  Italy; 
lie  passed  the  Alps,  but  found  his  further  progress  impeded 
by  the  judicious  disposition  which  Arbogas'tes  had  made  of 
his  forces.  Defeated  in  his  first  attack,  Theodo'sius  renewed 
the  engagement  on  the  following  ilay,  and  being  aided  by 
the  seasonable  revolt  of  some  Italian  legions,  obtained  a 


368  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

complete  victory.  Euge'nius  was  taken  prisoner,  and  put 
to  death  by  the  soldiers.  Arbogas'tes,  after  wandering  some 
time  in  the  mountains,  lost  all  hope  of  escape,  and  termi~ 
nated  his  life  by  suicide. 

29.  The  empire  was  thus  once  more  reunited  under  the 
government  of  a  single  sovereign ;  but  he  was  already 
stricken  by  the  hand  of  death.  The  fatigues  of  the  late 
campaign  proved  too  much  for  a  constitution  already  broken 
by  the  alternate  pleasures  of  the  palace  and  the  toils  of  the 
ramp;  four  months  after  the  defeat  of  Euge'nius,  he  died  at 
Milan,  universally  lamented. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  character  of  Julian! 

2.  To  what  disqualifications  did  he  subject  the  Christians  ? 

3.  How  was  Julian  frustrated  in  his  attempt  to  weaken  the  prophetic 

evidence  of  Christianity? 

4.  How  was  a  civil  contest  between  the  Pagans  and  Christians  averted  ? 

5.  What  success  had  Julian  in  the  Persian  invasion  7 

6.  How  did  Julian  die  1 

7.  Who  succeeded  Julian? 

8.  What  were  the  most  important  occurrences  in  the  reign  of  Jovian  1 

9.  WThat  caused  Jovian's  death  T 

10.  Who  were  the  successors  of  Jovian  T 

1 1 .  How  did  Valens  provoke  a  revolt  1 

12.  By  what  means  was  the  rebellion  of  Procopius  suppressed  1 

13.  What  barbarous  nations  attacked  the  Roman  empire  ? 

14.  In  what  state  was  Britain  at  this  period  1 

15.  Over  what  enemies  did  the  emperor  triumph? 

1 6.  What  occasioned  the  death  of  Valentinian  1 

17.  What  caused  the  introduction  of  the  Goths  into  the  Roman  empire  \ 

18.  How  did  the  imprudence  of  Valens  cause  his  destruction  ? 

19.  What  atrocious  edict  was  issued  by  the  senate  of  Constantinople  ? 

20.  How  was  Gratian  prevented  from  avenging  his  uncle's  death  ? 

21.  To  whom  did  Gratian  entrust  the  eastern  provinces  ? 

22.  How  did  Theodosius  administer  the  government  of  the  East  ? 

23.  By  whom  was  Gratian  deposed  and  slain  ? 

24.  On  what  conditions  did  Theodosius  make  peace  with  Mazimus  7 

25.  Were  these  conditions  observed  ? 

26.  How  did  the  war  between  Theodosius  and  Maximus  terminate  ? 

27.  Did  Valentinian  long  survive  his  restoration  ? 

28.  How  did  Theodosius  act  on  the  news  of  Valentinian's  murder  ? 

29.  What  caused  the  death  of  Theodosius  ? 


THE    EMPIRE.  369 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
SECTION  I. 

FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    THEODOSIUS    TO    THE    SUBVERSION    Ot 
THE    WESTERN    EMPIRE. 

1.  THE  memory  of  their  father's  virtues  protected  the 
feeble  youth  of  Arca'dius  and  Hono'rius,  the  sons  of  Theo- 
do'sius  ;  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  mankind,  they  were 
saluted  emperors  of  the  East  and  West,  and  between  them 
was  made  the  final  and  permanent  division  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Though  both  parts  were  never  re-united  under  a 
single  ruler,  they  continued  for  several  centuries  to  be  con- 
sidered as  one  empire,  and  this  opinion  produced  important 
consequences  even  in  a  late  period  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
dominions  of  Arca'dius  extended  from  the  lower  Danube  to 
the  confines  of  ^Ethiopia  and  Persia ;  including  Thrace, 
Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  Hono'rius,  a  youth 
in  his  eleventh  year,  received  the  nominal  sovereignty  of 
Italy,  Africa,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  with  the  provinces  of 
No'ricum,  Panno'nia,  and  Dalma'tia.  The  great  and  martial 
prefecture  of  Illyr'icum  was  divided  equally  between  the  two 
princes,  the  boundary  line  of  whose  dominions  consequently 
nearly  coincided  with  that  which  separates  the  Austrian  states 
from  the  Turkish  provinces.  2.  The  Western  empire,  to 
the  history  of  which  we  must  now  confine  ourselves,  though 
equal  to  the  Eastern  in  extent,  wealth,  and  population, 
incomparably  weaker,  and  already  appeared  rapidly  tending 
to  decay.  The  Caledonians  in  Britain,  and  the  Genmn 
tribes  on  the  northern  frontiers,  harassed  the  imperial  troops 
by  frequent  incursions  ;  on  the  east,  the  Goths  were  hoifrly 
becoming  more  formidable,  and  the  African  provinces  were 
threatened  by  the  Moors.  3.  The  internal  state  of  the  em- 
pire furnished  little  ground  for  hope  that  these  various  ene- 
mies could  be  subdued  ;  the  principle  of  union  no  longer 
existed;  the  proud  title  of  Roman  citizen  was  an  empty 
name,  Rome  itself  had  ceased  to  be  the  metropolis,  and  wa» 
now  only  protected  by  the  memory  of  her  former  gre:i' 

4.  Stil'icho,  a  general  of  superior  abilities,  ;\ntl  a  statesman 
of  profound  wisdom,  acted  as  the  giiardiait  of  Hono'rius. 
He  was  descended  from  the  perfidious  race  of  the  Vandals, 
and  unfortunately  possessed,  in  an  eminent  degree,  ihecun- 


370  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

ning,  treachery,  and  cruelty  that  characterised  his  nation 
The  administration  of  the  Eastern  empire  was  entrusted  by 
Arca'dius,  to  Rufi'nus,  who  possessed  all  the  bad  qualities 
of  Stil'icho  without  his  redeeming  virtues.  The  ministers 
of  the  two  empires  hated  each  other  most  cordially,  and 
each  secretly  sought  to  remove  his  powerful  rival ;  but  the 
superior  craft  of  Stil'icho,  and  his  great  influence  over  the 
soldiers,  made  him  conqueror.  5.  He  was  ordered  to  lead 
into  the  East  a  fair  proportion  of  the  army  which  Theodo'- 
sius  had  assembled,  and  in  obedience  to  the  requisition,  he 
marched  towards  Constantinople,  at  the  head  of  the  Gothic 
legions.  The  approach  of  his  great  rival  with  a  powerful 
army  alarmed  the  timid  Rufi'nus  ;  he  obtained  a  peremptory 
edict  from  Arca'dius,  commanding  Stil'icho  to  return  to  Italy, 
and  the  promptitude  with  which  the  order  was  obeyed  lulled 
the  Eastern  minister  into  fatal  negligence.  The  troops  ar- 
rived near  Constantinople,  under  the  guidance  of  Gai'nas  a 
Gothic  leader,  and  the  emperor,  accompanied  by  his  minister, 
came  out  to  welcome  and  review  the  soldiers.  As  Rufi'nus 
rode  along  the  ranks,  endeavouring  to  conciliate  favour  by 
studied  courtesy,  the  wings  gradually  advanced,  and  enclosed 
the  devoted  victim  within  the  fatal  circle  of  their  arms.  Be- 
fore he  was  aware  of  his  danger,  Gai'nas  gave  the  signal  of 
death  ;  a  soldier  rushing  forward  plunged  his  sword  into  his 
breast,  and  the  bleeding  corpse  fell  at  the  very  feet  of  the 
alarmed  emperor.  6.  His  mangled  body  was  treated  with 
shocking  indignity,  and  his  wife  and  daughter  would  have 
shared  his  fate,  had  they  not  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  religion,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  sanctuary. 

7.  Stil'icho  derived  no  advantage  from  this  crime  which  he 
had  planned,  but  not  executed  ;  Arca'dius  chose  for  his  new 
minister,  Eutro'pius,  one  of  his  servants,  and  Gai'nas  de- 
clared himself  the  determined  enemy  of  his  former  general. 

8.  The  national  hatred  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans 
was  excited  by  the  rival  ministers,  and  thus  at  a  moment 
when  union  alone  would  delay  ruin,  the  subjects  of  Arca'- 
dius and  Hono'rius  were  induced  to  regard  each  other  not 
only  as  foreigners,  but  as  enemies.     9.  The  revolt  of  Gil' 
do,  in   Africa,    under  the  pretence   of  transferring  his   al- 
legiance from  the  Western  to  the  Eastern  empire,  was  sanc- 
tioned by  the  court  of  Constantinople.     Such  an  event  was 
peculiarly  alarming,  as  Italy  at  the  time  imported  most  of 
the  corn  necessary  to  the  subsistence  of  the  people,  from 
the  African  provinces.     The  vigoar  of  Stil'icho  warded  off 


THE    EMPIRE.  371 

the  danger;  lie  sent  a  small  but  veteran  army  into  Africa, 
before  which  Gildo's  hosts  of  unarmed  and  undisciplined 
barbarians  fled  almost  without  a  blow.  The  usurper  was 
taken  and  executed;  his  partizans  were  persecuted  witli 
merciless  impolicy. 

10.  The  Goths,  who  had  remained  quiet  during  the  reign 
of  the  great  Theodo'sius,  disdained  submission  to  his  un- 
warlike  successors ;  under  the  pretence  that  the  subsidy 
prudently  paid  them  by  the  late  emperor  was  withheld,  they 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  and  chose  for  their  leader 
Al'aric,  the  most  formidable  enemy  that  the  Romans  had 
hitherto  encountered.  Instead  of  confining  his  depredations 
to  the  northern  provinces,  already  wasted  by  frequent  incur- 
sions, Alaric  resolved  to  invade  Greece,  where  the  din  of 
arms  had  not  been  heard  for  centuries.  11.  The  barbarian 
encountered  little  or  no  resistance,  the  memorable  pass  of 
Thermop'ylae  was  abandoned  by  its  garrison  ;  Athens  pur- 
chased inglorious  safety  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  greater  part 
of  its  wealth ;  the  Corinthian  isthmus  was  undefended,  and 
the  Goths  ravaged  without  opposition  the  entire  Peloponne'- 
sus.  Unable  to  protect  themselves,  the  Greeks  sought  the  aid 
of  Stilicho,  and  that  great  leader  soon  sailed  to  their  M 
ance  ;  he  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  the  Goths,  but  neglected 
to  improve  his  advantages ;  and  before  he  could  retrieve 
his  error,  news  arrived  that  the  faithless  court  of  Constanti- 
nople had  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Al'aric.  Stili- 
cho, of  course,  returned  to  Italy;  while  the  eastern  empe- 
ror, with  incomprehensible  folly,  nominated  the  Gothic 
leader,  master-general  of  eastern  Illyr'icum. 

12.  Italy  soon  excited  the  ambition  and  cupidity  of  Alaric; 
he  determined  to  invade  that  country,  and,  after  surmount- 
ing all  impediments,  appeared  with  his  forces  before  the  im- 
perial city  of  Milan.  The  feeble  Hono'rius  would  have  fled 
with  his  effeminate  court  into  some  remote  corner  of  Gaul, 
had  not  the  indignant  remonstrances  of  Stil'icho  induced 
him  to  remain,  until  he  could  assemble  forces  sufficient  to 
protect  the  empire.  For  this  purpose  the  brave  general 
hurried  into  Gaul,  assembled  the  garrisons  from  the  lYontirr 
towns,  recalled  a  legion  from  Britain,  and  strengthened  his 
forces  by  taking  several  German  tribes  into  pay.  13.  Hut 
before  Stil'icho  could  return,  the  empire  had  been  brought 
to  the  very  brink  of  ruin ;  Hono'rius,  affrighted  by  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Goths,  fled  from  Milan  to  As'ta,  ami 
there  closely  besieged.  When  the  town  was  on  the  poini 


372  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

of  capitulating,  the  emperor  was  saved  by  the  opportune 
arrival  of  Stil'icho,  before  whom  Alaric  retired.  He  was 
closely  pursued,  and  the  armies  of  the  Romans  and  barba- 
rians came  to  an  engagement  nearly  on  the  same  ground 
where  Alarms  had  so  many  years  before  defeated  the  Cimbri 
14.  The  Goths  were  completely  beaten,  and  a  second  vic- 
tory obtained  over  them  near  Vero'na  seemed  to  insure  the 
deliverance  of  Italy ;  but  Al'aric  was  still  lormidable,  and 
the  favourable  terms  granted  him  by  Stil'icho,  proved,  that 
in  the  opinion  of  that  general,  the  Gothic  king,  though  de- 
feated, was  unconquered. 

15.  The  late  invasion  so  alarmed  the  timid  Hono'rius, 
that  he  resolved  to  fix  his  residence  in  some  remote  and 
strong  fortress  ;  and  for  this  purpose  he  selected  Raven 'na, 
an  ancient  city,  but  which  had  not  previously  obtained  no- 
toriety. 1 6.  Before  Italy  had  recovered  from  the  terrors  of 
the  Gothic  invasion,  a  new  host  of  barbarians  rushed  from 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  bore  down  before  them  all  opposi- 
tion in  Germany  and  Gaul ;  and  had  passed  the  Alps,  the 
Po,  and  the  Apennines,  ere  an  army  could  be  assembled  to 
resist  them.  17.  Radagai'sus,  the  leader  of  these  hordes, 
was  a  more  formidable  enemy  even  than  Alaric ;  the  Goths 
had  embraced  Christianity,  and  their  fierce  passions  were  in 
some  degree  moderated  by  the  mild  precepts  of  the  gospel ; 
but  Radagai'sus  was  a  stranger  to  any  religion  but  the  cruel 
creed  of  his  fathers,  which  taught  that  the  favour  of  the 
gods  could  only  be  propitiated  by  human  sacrifices.  18.  The 
wealthy  city  of  Florence  was  besieged  by  the  barbarians, 
but  its  bishop,  St.  Ambrose,  by  his  zealous  exhortations, 
and  by  holding  out  the  hope  of  divine  assistance,  prevented 
the  garrison  from  yielding  to  despair.  Stil'icho  a  second 
time  earned  the  title  of  the  deliverer  of  Italy ;  Radagai'sus 
was  defeated  and  slain ;  but  the  remains  of  his  forces  es- 
caped into  Gaul,  and  spread  desolation  over  that  entire  pro- 
vince, from  which  the  garrisons  had  been  withdrawn  for  the 
defence  of  Italy.  19.  An  usurper,  named  Constantine, 
about  this  time  appeared  in  Britain,  and  soon  established  his 
authority  both  in  Gaul  and  Spain,  which  had  been  virtually 
deserted  by  the  emperor.  Al'aric  offered  his  services  to 
repress  the  rebellion,  and  to  purchase  either  his  assistance 
or  his  forbearance,  a  large  subsidy  was  voted  to  him  by  the 
senate,  through  the  influence  of  Stil'icho.  20.  But  the 
reign  of  this  great  man  was  drawing  fast  to  a  close  ;  Olym'- 
pius,  a  miserable  favourite,  who  owed  his  first  elevation  to 


THE    EMPIRE.  373 

Stil'icho,  filled  the  emperor's  mind  with  suspicion,  and  a 
secret  resolution  to  destroy  the  minister  was  adopted.  21. 
By  exciting  the  jealousy  of  the  legions  against  the  auxiliary 
forces  that  Stil'icho  employed,  Olym'pius  was  enabled  to 

gain  the  army  to  his  side,  and  the  lasx  0 ~~,,pOrter  of  the 

Roman  name  fell  by  the  swords  of  those  soldiers  whom  he 
had  so  often  led  to  victory.  His  friends,  including  the  best 
and  bravest  generals  of  the  army,  shared  his  fate  ;  many  of 
them  were  racked,  to  extort  from  them  a  confession  of  a 
conspiracy  which  never  existed  ;  and  their  silence  under  the 
tortures  at  once  proved  their  own  innocence  and  that  of  their 
leader. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  What  division  was  made  of  the  Roman  empire  between  the  sons  of 

Theodosius  1 

2.  By  what  enemies  was  the  Western  empire  assailed  ? 
:i.  What  was  the  internal  condition  of  the  state  ? 

4.  To  what  ministers  did  the  emperors  trust  the  administration  T 
6.  How  did  Stilicho  prevail  o»er  Kufinus? 

6.  What  instances  of  savage  cruelty  were  exhibited  by  the  murderer* 

of  Rufinus? 

7.  Did  Stilicho  derive  any  advantage  from  the  death  of  his  rival  ? 

8.  What  rivalry  broke  out  between  the  subjects  of  the  eastern  and 

western  empire  1 

9.  How  did  the  revolt  of  Gildo  in  Africa  end ? 

1 0.  Why  did  the  Goths  attack  the  eastern  empire  ! 

1 1.  How  did  the  Gothic  invasion  of  Greece  end  1 

!2.  Did  the  western  emperor  display  any  courage  when  Italy  WM  in- 
vaded! 

1 3.  How  was  Honorius  saved  from  ruin  ? 
)4.  Was  this  defeat  destructive  of  the  Gothic  power? 

15.  Where  did  Hoaorius  fix  the  seat  of  his  government? 

16.  What  new  hordes  invaded  Italy? 

17.  Why  were  the  northern  barbarians  more  formidable  than  the  Goths  T 

18.  How  was  Florence  saved? 

19.  On  what  occasion  was  a  subsidy  voted  to  A  lane  1 

20.  Who  conspired  against  Stilicho? 

21.  In  what  manner  was  Stilicho  slain  ? 


SECTION  II. 


1.  AL'ARIC,  posted  on  the  confines  of  Italy,  watched  the 
distractions  of  the  peninsula  with  secret  joy;  he  had  been 
unwisely  irritated  by  the  delay  of  the  subsidy  which  had 
2   I 


374  HISTORY   OF    ROME. 

formerly  beer,  promised  him,  and  when  payment  was  finally 
refused,  he  once  more  led  his  followers  into  Italy.  2.  The 
A.  D.  }  feeble  successors  of  Stil'icho  had  made  no  prepara- 
408.  5  tions  for  resistance  ;  they  retired  with  their  mastei 
into  the  fortress  of  Raven'na,  while  the  Goths,  spreading 
ruin  in  their  march,  advanced  to  the  very  walls  of  Rome. 
Six  hundred  years  had  now  elapsed  since  an  enemy  had 
appeared  to  threaten  THE  ETERNAL  CITY  ;  a  worse  foe  than 
Hannibal  was  now  at  their  gates,  and  the  citizens  were 
more  disabled  by  luxury  from  attempting  a  defence,  than 
their  ancestors  had  been  by  the  carnage  of  Can'nae.*  3.  The 
strength  of  the  walls  deterred  the  Goth  from  attempting  a 
regular  siege,  but  he  subjected  the  city  to  a  strict  blockade. 
Famine,  and  its  usual  attendant,  pestilence,  soon  began  to 
waste  the  miserable  Romans  ;  but  even  the  extreme  of  mi- 
sery could  not  induce  them  to  sally  forth,  and  try  their  for- 
tune in  the  field.  They  purchased  the  retreat  of  Al'aric  by 
the  sacrifice  of  their  wealth  ;  and  the  victorious  Goth  formed 
his  winter  quarters  in  Tuscany,  where  his  army  was  rein- 
forced by  more  than  forty  thousand  of  his  countrymen  who 
had  been  enslaved  by  the  Romans. 

4.  The  presence  of  a  victorious  leader,  with  one  hundred 
thousand  men,  in  the  very  centre  of  Italy,  ought  to  have 
taught  the  imperial  court  at  Raven'na  prudence  and  mode- 
ration ;  but  such  was  their  incredible  folly  that  they  not  only 
violated  their  engagements  with  Al'aric,  but  added  personal 
insult  to  injury.  Rome  was  once  more  besieged,  and  as 
Al'aric  had  seized  the  provisions  at  Os'tia,  on  which  the 
citizens  depended  for  subsistence,  the  Romans  were  forced 
to  surrender  at  discretion.  5.  At  the  instigation  of  the 
Gothic  king,  At'talus,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  was  invested 
with  the  imperial  purple,  and  measures  were  taken  to  com- 
pel Hono'rius  to  resign  in  his  favour.  But  At'talus  proved 
utterly  unworthy  of  a  throne,  and  after  a  brief  reign  was 
publicly  degraded ;  the  rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in  ob- 
scurity under  the  protection  of  the  Goths.  6.  A  favourable 
opportunity  of  effecting  a  peace  was  now  offered,  but  it  was 
again  insolently  rejected  by  the  wretched  Hono'rius,  and  a 
herald  publicly  proclaimed  that  in  consequence  of  the  guilt 
of  Al'aric,  he  was  for  ever  excluded  from  the  friendship  and 
nlliance  of  the  emperor. 

7.  For  the  third  time  Al'aric  proceeded  to  revenge  the 

*  See  Chapter  xv.  Sect.  ii. 


THE    EMPIRE.  375 

insults  of  the  emperor  on  the  unfortunate  city  of  Rome. 
The  trembling  senate  made  some  preparations  for  defence 
but  they  were  rendered  ineffectual  by  the  treachery  of  a 
slave,  who  betrayed  one  of  the  gates  to  the  Gothic  legions 
That  city  which  had  been  for  ages  the  mistress  of  the  world, 
became  the  prey  of  ruthless  barbarians,  who  spared,  indeed, 
the  churches  and  sanctuaries,  but  placed  no  other  bound  to 
their  savage  passions.  For  six  successive  days  the  Goths 
revelled  in  the  sack  of  the  city ;  at  the  end  of  that  period 
they  followed  Al'aric  to  new  conquests  and  new  devasta- 
tions. 8.  The  entire  south  of  Italy  rapidly  followed  the 
fate  of  the  capital,  and  Al'aric  determined  to  add  Sicily  to 
the  list  of  his  triumphs.  Before,  however,  his  army  could 
pass  the  Strait,  he  was  seized  with  an  incurable  disease,  and 
his  premature  death  protracted  for  a  season  the  existence  of 
the  Western  empire.*  9.  Al'aric  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Adol'phus,  who  immediately  commenced  negocia- 
tions  for  a  treaty  ;  the  peace  was  cemented  by  a  marriage 
between  the  Gothic  king  and  Placid'ia,  the  sister  of  the  em- 
peror. The  army  of  the  invaders  evacuated  Italy,  and 
Adol'phus,  leading  his  soldiers  into  Spain,  founded  the 
kingdom  of  the  Visigoths.  10.  Adolphus  did  not  long  sur- 
vive his  triumphs  ;  Placid'ia  returned  to  her  brother's  court, 
and  was  persuaded  to  bestow  her  hand  on  Constan'tius,  the 
general  who  had  suppressed  the  rebellion  of  Constan'tine. 
Britain,  Spain,  and  part  of  Gaul  had  been  now  irrecoverably 
lost ;  Constan'tius,  whose  abilities  might  have  checked  the 
progress  of  ruin,  died,  after  the  birth  of  his  second  child  ; 
Placid'ia  retired  to  the  court  of  Constantinople,  and  at  length 
Hono'rius,  after  a  disgraceful  reign  of  twenty-eight  years, 
terminated  his  wretched  life. 

11.  The  next  heir  to  the  throne  was  Valenti'nian,  th« 
son  of  Placid'ia;  but  John,  the  late  emperor's  secretary, 
took  advantage  of  Placid'ia's  absence  in  the  east,  to  seize 

*  The  ferocious  character  of  the  barbarians  was  displayed  in  the  fune- 
ral of  their  chief.  The  unhappy  captives  were  compelled  to  divert  the 
stream  of  the  river  Busenti'nus,  which  washed  the  walls  of  Consen'tim, 
(now  Cosenza,  in  farther  Cala'bria,  Italy,)  in  the  bed  of  which  the  royal 
sepulchre  was  formed :  with  the  body  were  deposited  much  of  the 
wealth,  and  many  of  the  trophies  obtained  at  Rome.  The  river  was 
then  permitted  to  return  to  its  accustomed  channel,  and  the  prisoner* 
employed  in  the  work  were  inhumanly  massacred,  to  conceal  the  spot 
in  which  the  deceased  hero  was  entombed.  A  beautiful  poem  on  this 
nil-jrrt,  entitled,  The  Dirge  of  Alaric  the  VUijroth,  has  appeared,  which 
is  attributed  to  the  honourable  Edward  Evnrit. 


376  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

on  the  government.  The  court  of  Constantinople  promptly 
sent  a  body  of  troops  against  the  usurper,  and  John  was 
surprised  and  taken  prisoner  at  Raven'na.  12.  Valenti'nian 
III.,  then  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  age,  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror, and  the  regency  entrusted  to  his  mother,  Placid'ia. 
The  two  best  generals  of  the  age,  ^E'tius  and  Bon'iface, 
were  at  the  head  of  the  army,  but,  unfortunately,  their  mu- 
tual jealousies  led  them  to  involve  the  empire  in  civil  war. 
13.  Bon'iface  was  recalled  from  the  government  of  Africa 
through  the  intrigues  of  his  rival,  and  when  he  hesitated  to 
comply,  was  proclaimed  a  traitor.  Unfortunately  the  Afri- 
can prefect,  unable  to  depend  on  his  own  forces,  invited  the 
Vandals  to  his  assistance.  Gen'seric,  the  king  of  that  na- 
tion, passed  over  from  Spain,  which  his  barbarous  forces 
had  already  wasted,  and  the  African  provinces  were  now 
subjected  to  the  same  calamities  that  afflicted  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  14.  Bon'iface  became  too  late  sensible  of  his  error; 
he  attempted  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Vandals,  but  was 
defeated,  and  Africa  finally  wrested  from  the  empire.  He 
returned  to  Italy,  and  was  pardoned  by  Placid'ia ;  but  the 
jealous  ^E'tius  led  an  army  to  drive  his  rival  from  the  court; 
a  battle  ensued,  in  which  ^E'tius  was  defeated ;  but  Bon'i- 
face died  in  the  arms  of  victory.  Placid'ia  was  at  first  de- 
termined to  punish  ^E'tius  as  a  rebel ;  but  his  power  was 
too  formidable,  and  his  abilities  too  necessary  in  the  new 
dangers  that  threatened  the  empire ;  he  was  not  only  par- 
doned, but  invested  with  more  than  his  former  authority. 

15.  The  hordes  of  Huns  that  had  seized  on  the  ancient 
territory  of  the  Goths,  had  now  become  united  under  the 
ferocious  At'tila,  whose  devastations  procured  him  the  for- 
midable name  of  "  The  Scourge  of  God."  The  Eastern 
empire,  unable  to  protect  itself  from  his  ravages,  purchased 
peace  by  the  payment  of  a  yearly  tribute,  and  he  directed 
his  forces  against  the  western  provinces,  which  promised 
richer  plunder.  He  was  instigated  also  by  secret  letters 
from  the  princess  Hono'ria,  the  sister  of  the  emperor,  who 
solicited  a  matrimonial  alliance  with  the  barbarous  chieftain. 
^E'tius  being  supported  by  the  king  of  the  Goths,  and  some 
other  auxiliary  forces,  attacked  the  Huns  in  the  Catalaunian 
plains,  near  the  modern  city  of  Chalons  in  France.  16. 
After  a  fierce  engagement  the  Huns  were  routed,  and  it  was 
not  without  great  difficulty  that  At'tila  effected  his  retreat. 
The  following  year  he  invaded  Italy  with  more  success  ; 
peace,  however,  was  purchased  by  bestowing  on  him  the 


THE    EMPIRE.  377 

hand  of  the  princess  Hono'ria,  with  an  immense  dowry. 
Before  the  marriage  could  be  consummated,  At'tila  was  found 
dead  in  his  bed,  having  burst  a  blood-vessel  during  the  ni^ht. 

17.  The  brave  vE'tius  was  badly  rewarded  by  the  wretched 
emperor  for  his  eminent  services ;  Valentinian,  yielding  to 
his  cowardly  suspicions,  assassinated  the  general  with  his 
own  hand.  18.  This  crime  was  followed  by  an  injury  to 
Max'imus,  an  eminent  senator,  who,  eager  for  revenge, 
joined  in  a  conspiracy  with  the  friends  of  ^E'tius  ;  tln-y 
attacked  the  emperor  publicly,  in  the  midst  of  his  guards, 
and  slew  him. 

19.  The  twenty  years  which  intervened  between  the 
assassination  of  Valentinian,  and  the  final  destruction  of  the 
"Western  empire,  were  nearly  one  continued  series  of  intes- 
tine revolutions.  20.  Even  in  the  age  of  Cicero,  when  tho 
empire  of  Rome  oeemed  likely  to  last  for  ever,  it  was  stated 
by  the  augurs  that  the  twelve  vultures  seen  by  Romulu?,* 
represented  the  twelve  centuries  assigned  for  the  fatal  period 
of  the  city.  This  strange  prediction,  forgotten  in  ages  of 
peace  and  prosperity,  was  recalled  to  the  minds  of  men 
when  events,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  showed 
that  the  prophecy  was  about  to  be  accomplished.  It  is  not, 
of  course,  our  meaning,  that  the  ominous  flight  of  birds,  the 
prophetic  interpretation,  and  its  almost  literal  fulfilment, 
were  any  thing  more  than  an  accidental  coincidence ;  but,  it 
must  be  confessed,  that  it  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
on  record. 

21.  Maximus  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne,  and  found 
that  the  first  day  of  his  reign  was  the  last  of  his  hap-,': 
On  the  death  of  his  wife,  whose  wrongs  he  had  so  severely 
revenged,  he  endeavoured  to  compel  Eudox'ia,  the  widow 
of  the  murdered  emperor,  to  become  his  spouse.  In  her 
indignation  at  this  insulting  proposal,  Eudox'ia  did  not 
hesitate  to  apply  for  aid  to  Gen'seric,  king  of  those  Vandals 
that  had  seized  Africa;  and  the  barbarian  king,  glad  of  such 
a  fair  pretence,  soon  appeared  with  a  powerful  fleet  in  the 
Tiber.  22.  Max'imus  was  murdered  in  an  insurrection, 
occasioned  by  these  tidings ;  and  Gen'seric,  advancing  to 
Rome,  became  master  of  the  city,  which  was  for  fourteen 
days  pillaged  by  the  Moors  and  Vandals.  Eudox'i 
reason  to  lament  her  imprudent  conduct ;  she  was  carried 
off  a  captive  by  the  ferocious  Vandal,  along  with  her  two 

•  See  Chapter  i. 
2  I  2 


378  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

daughters,  the  last  of  the  family  of  the  great  Theo'dosius 
and  many  thousand  Romans  were  at  the  same  time  dragged 
into  slavery. 

23.  The  army  in  Gaul  saluted  their  general,  Avi'tus,  em- 
peror, and  the  Roman  senate  and  people  at  first  acquiesced 
in  the  choice.     But  Avi'tus  was  soon  found  unfit  to  hold  the 
reins  of  power  at  a  time  of  so  much  danger  and  difficulty  ; 
the  senate,  influenced  by  Ri'cimer,  the  commander  of  the 
barbarian  auxiliaries,  voted  his  deposition.    He  died  shortly 
sfter,  whether  by  disease  or  violence  is  uncertain. 

24.  The  powerful  Ri'cimer  now  placed  upon  the  throne 
Ju'lian    Majo'rian,  who  united  in  an  eminent  degree  the 
qualities  of  a  brave  soldier  and  a   wise  statesman.     The 
fwasts  of  Italy  had  long  been  wasted  by  Gen'seric,  king  of 
the  Vandals,  and  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  their  incursions, 
the  emperor  determined  to  attack  the  pirates  in  Africa,  the 
ecat  of  their  power.     The  judicious  preparations  which  he 
made  were  disconcerted  by  treason ;    Ri'cimer,  who  had 
hoped  to  rule  the  empire  while  Majo'rian  enjoyed  the  empty 
title  of  monarch,  was  disappointed  by  the  abilities  which 
the   new  emperor  displayed.     Some  of  his   creatures  be- 
trayed the  Roman  fleet  to  the  torches  of  the  Vandals ;  and 
Ri'cimer  took  advantage  of  the    popular  discontent  occa- 
sioned by  this  disaster,  to  procure  the  dethronement  of  his 
former  friend.     Majo'rian  died  five  years  after  his  deposi- 
tion, and  the  humble  tomb  which  covered  his  remains  was 
consecrated  by  the  respect  and  gratitude  of  succeeding  gen- 
erations. 

25.  Ri'cimcr's  next  choice  was  more  prudent ;  at  his  in- 
stigation the  obsequious  senate  raised  to  the  throne  Lib'ius 
Sev'erus,  of  whom  history  records  little  more  than  his  ele- 
vation, and  his  death,  which  occurred  in  the  fifth  year  after 
his  election.     During  the  nominal  reign  of  Sev'erus  and  the 
interregnum  that  followed,  the  entire  power  of  the  state  was 
possessed  by  Ri'cimer,  whom  barbarian  descent  alone  pre- 
vented from  being  acknowledged  emperor.     He  was  unable, 
however,  to  protect  Italy  from  the  devastations  of  the  Van- 
dals ;  and  to  obtain  the  aid  of  Le'o,  the  Eastern  emperor, 
lie  was  forced  to  acknowledge  Anthe'mius,  who  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  throne  of  the  West  by  the  court  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

26.  The  perfidious  Ricimer  soon  became  dissatisfied  with 
Anthe'mius,  and  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.    Marching  to 
Rome  he  easily  became  master  of  the  city,  and  Anthe'mius 


THE    EMPIRE.  379 


Fall  of  ConiUntinople.         I 

was  slain  in  the  tumult.  The  unhappy  Romans  were  agaia. 
subjected  to  all  the  miseries  that  military  licentiousness 
could  inflict ;  for  forty  days  Ricimer  exulted  in  the  havoc 
and  ruin  of  the  imperial  city  ;  but  a  disease,  occasioned  hy 
excessive  intemperance,  siezed  on  his  vitals,  and  death  freed 
Rome  from  the  tyrant. 

27.  Olyb'ius,  the  successor  of  Anthe'mius,  dying  after  a 
short  reign  of  three  months,  Glyce'rius,  an  obscure  soldier, 
assumed  the  purple  at  Raven'na,  but  \vassoondcthroned  l>y 
Ju'lius  Nc'pos,  whom  the  court  of  Constantinople  supported. 
A  treaty  by  which  the  most  faithful  provinces  of  Gaul  \\--\-- 
yielded  to  the  Visigoths,  produced  so  much  popular  discon- 
tent, that   Op's'tes,  a  general  of  barbarian  auxiliaries,  was 
encouraged  to   revolt,   and    Ne'pos,  unable  to  defend  the 
throne,  abdicated,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  unhon- 
oured  life  in  obscurity. 

28.  Ores'tes  placed  the  crown  on  the  head  of  his  son 
Rom'ulus  Momyl'lus,  better  known  in  history  by  the  name 
of  Augus'tulus.     He  was  the  last  of  the  emperors;  before 
he    had   enjoyed  his  elevation  many  months,  he  was  de- 
throned by  Odoa'cer,  a  leader  of  the  barbarian  troops,  and 
banished  to  a  villa  that  once  belonged,  to  the,  wealthy  I.u- 
cul'lus,  where  he  was  supported  by  a  pension  allowed  him 
by  the  conqueror.*    29.  Odoa'cer  assumed  the  title     (  A.  D. 
of  king  of  Italy,  but  after  a  reign  of  fourteen  years,     (  470. 

•  See  Chapter 


380  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  superior  genius  of  Theod'oric, 
king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  under  whose  prudent  government 
Italy  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  peace  and  prosperity,  to 
which  the  country  had  been  long  a  stranger. 

30.  Thus  finally  fell  the  Roman  empire  of  the  west, 
while  that  of  the  east  survived  a  thousand  years,  notwith- 
standing its  fierce  internal  dissensions,  which  alone  would 
have  sufficed  to  destroy  any  other  ;  and  the  hosts  of  bar- 
barians by  which  it  was  assailed.  The  almost  impregnable 
situation  of  its  capital,  whose  fate  usually  decides  that  of 
such  empires,  joined  to  its  despotism,  which  gave  unity  to 
the  little  strength  it  retained,  can  alone  explain  a  phenome- 
non unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  history.  At  length,  on 
the  29tli  of  May,  1453,  Constantinople  was  taken  by  Mo- 
hammed the  Second,  and  the  government  and  religion  es- 
tablished by  the  great  Constantine,  trampled  in  the  dust  by 
the  Moslem  conquerors. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1 .  Wliat  induced  Alaric  to  invade  Italy  a  second  time  7 

2.  Did  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  make  adequate  preparations  for 

resistance  1 

3.  How  was  Alaric  induced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Rome  1 

4.  Why  did  Alaric  besiege  Rome  a  second  time  ! 

5.  Whom  did  the  Goths  make  emperor  1 

6.  What  favourable  opportunity  of  making  peace  did  HOJVVUU  *  we  1 

7.  By  what  means  did  the  Goths  become  masters  of  Rome  1 

8.  Where  did  Alaric  die  ? 

9.  What  events  marked  the  reign  of  Adolphus  1 

10.  What  remarkable  persons  died  nearly  at  the  same  timet 

1 1.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  usurper  John  1 

12.  To  whom  was  the  government  entrusted  during  Valentipi&*  *  m> 

nority  1 

13.  Bv  whom  were  the  Vandals  invited  to  Africa  1 

14.  What  was  the  fate  of  Boniface  1 

15.  How  were  the  Huns  instigated  to  invade  Italy  ? 
j.G.  Under  what  circumstances  did  Attila  die  1 

17.  Of  what  great  crimes  was  Valentinian  III.  guilty  t 

1 8.  How  was  Valentinian  slain  ? 

19.  20.  What  strange  prophecy  was  now  about  to  be  fulfilled] 

21.  What  terminated  the  brief  reign  of  Maximus1? 

22.  Had  Eudoxia  reason  to  lament  her  invitation  to  the  Vandals  i 

23.  Why  was  the  emperor  Avitus  dethroned1? 

24.  How  did  Ricimer  procure  the  deposition  of  Majorian  ! 

25.  What  changes  followed  on  the  death  of  Majorian  1 


TI1K    I..MPIRE.  381 

2R.  How  did  Ricimer  terminate  his  dextrurtive  rarrrr  ? 

27.  What  changes  took  place  after  the  death  of  Arthemius  1 

28.  Who  was  the  last  Roman  emperor  1 

29.  What  kingdoms  were  founded  on  the  ruins  of  the  western  empire  ! 

30.  How  was  the  ej  istence  of  the  eastern  empire  prolonged  7 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

HISTORICAL    NOTICES    OF    THE   DIFFERENT  BARBAROUS   TRIBES 
THAT    AIDED    15    DESTROYING    THE    ROMAN    EXPIRE. 

1.  WE  have  already  mentioned  that  the  barbarous  nations 
which  joined  in  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire,  were 
invited  to  come  within  its  precincts  through  (he  weakness  or 
folly  of  successive  sovereigns  who  recruited  their  armies  from 
those  hardy  tribes,  in  preference  to  their  own  subjects,  ener- 
vated by  luxury  and  indolence.  The  grants  of  land,  and  the 
rich  donations  by  which  the  emperors  endeavoured  to  secure 
the  fidelity  of  these  dangerous  auxiliaries,  encouraged  them 
to  regard  the  Roman  territories  as  their  prey ;  and  being 
alternately  the  objects  of  lavish  extravagance  and  wanton 
insult,  their  power  was  increased  at  the  same  time  that  their 
resentment  was  provoked.  2.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
year  406,  the  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Alans,  first 
sounded  the  tocsin  of  invasion,  and  their  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Goths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Alleman'ni,  the 
Franks,  the  Huns,  the  Angli,  the  Saxons,  the  Heruli,  and 
the  Longobar'di,  or  Lombards.  The  chief  of  these  nations, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Huns,  were  of  German  origin.  It 
is  not  easy  in  evt-ry  instance  to  discover  the  original  6« 
these  several  tribes,  and  trace  their  successive  migration.*, 
because,  being  ignorant  of  letters,  they  only  retained  some 
vague  traditions  of  their  wanderings. 

THE  VANDALS  AND  ALANS 

3.  This  tribe  was,  like  the  Burgundians  and  Lombards,  a 
branch  of  the  ancient  Sue'vi,  :uul  inhabited  that  part  oi 
many  which  lies  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Vis'tula.     Bcinjj 
joined  by  some  warriors  from  Sr:mtlin:ivi:i,  they   :uh 
towards  the  south,  and  established  theniM-Ues  in  thrf 
of  Da'cia  which  included  the  modern  province  of  Tn 


382  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

va'n'a,  and  part  of  Hungary.  Being  oppressed  in  their  new 
settlement  by  the  Goths,  they  sought  the  protection  of  Con 
stantine  the  Great,  and  obtained  from  him  a  grant  of  lands 
in  Pannonia,  on  condition  of  their  rendering  military  service 
to  the  Romans.  4.  About  the  commencement  of  the  fifth 
century,  they  were  joined  by  the  ALANS,  a  people  originally 
from  mount  Cau'casus,  and  the  ancient  Scythia  :  a  branch 
of  which  having  settled  in  Sarma'tia,  near  the  source  of  the 
Borysthenes  (Dnieper),  had  advanced  as  far  as  the  Danube, 
and  there  made  a  formidable  stand  against  the  Romans.  In 
their  passage  through  Germany,  the  Vandals  and  Alans  were 
joined  by  a  portion  of  the  Suevi,  and  the  confederate 
tribes  entering  Gaul,  spread  desolation  over  the  entire  coun- 
try. 5.  From  thence  the  barbarians  passed  into  Spain  and 
settled  in  the  province,  from  them  named  Vandalu'sia,  since 
corrupted  to  Andalusia.  On  the  invitation  of  Count  Boni- 
face, the  Vandals  proceeded  from  Spain  to  Africa,  where 
they  founded  a  formidable  empire.  After  remaining  masters 
of  the  western  Mediterranean  for  nearly  a  century,  the  east- 
ern emperor  Justinian  sent  a  formidable  force  against  them 
under  the  command  of  the  celebrated  Belisa'rius.  This 
great  leader  not  only  destroyed  the  power  of  these  pirates, 
but  erased  the  very  name  of  Vandals  from  the  list  of  nations. 

THE  GOTHS. 

6.  The  Goths,  the  most  powerful  of  these  destructive  na- 
tions, are  said  to  have  come  originally  from  Scandina'via  ; 
but  when  they  first  began  to  attract  the  notice  of  historians, 
we  find  them  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  Those 
who  inhabited  the  districts  towards  the  east,  and  the  Euxine 
sea,  between  the  Ty'ras  (Dniester)  the  Borys'thenes  (Dnie- 
per) and  the  Tan'ais  (Don)  were  called  Ostrogoths  ;  the 
Visigoths  extended  westwards  over  ancient  Dacia,  and  the 
regions  between  the  Ty'ras,  the  Danube,  and  the  Vistula. 
7.  Attacked  in  these  vast  countries  by  the  Huns,  as  has 
been  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter,  some  were  subju- 
gated, and  others  compelled  to  abandon  their  habitations. 
They  obtained  settlements  from  the  emperors,  but  being 
unwisely  provoked  to  revolt,  they  became  the  most  formi- 
dable enemies  of  the  Romans.  After  having  twice  ravaged 
Italy  and  plundered  Rome,  they  ended  their  conquests  by 
establishing  themselves  in  Gaul  and  Spain. 

8.  The  Spanish  monarchy  of  the  Visigoths,  which  in  its 
flourishing  state  comprised,  besides  the  entire  peninsula, 


THE    EMPIRE.  383 

the  province  of  Septima'nia  (Lungttcdoc)  in  Gaul,  and 
Maurita'nia,  Tingeta'na,  (north-western  Africa)  on  the  op- 
posite coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  lasted  from  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  to  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  century,  M  hen 
it  was  overthrown  by  the  Moors.  9.  The  Thuringians, 
whom  we  find  established  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  appear  to  have  been  a  bram-h  of 
the  Visigoths. 

THE  FRANKS. 

10.  A  number  of  petty  German  tribes  having  entered  into 
a  confederacy  to  maintain  their  mutual  independence,  took 
the  name  of  Franks,  or  Freemen.  The  tribes  which  thus 
associated,  principally  inhabited  the  districts  lying  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Weser,  including  the  greater  part  of  Hol- 
land and  Westphalia.  11.  In  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, they  invaded  Gaul,  but  were  defeated  by  Aurelian, 
who  afterwards  became  emperor.  In  the  fourth,  and  to- 
wards the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  they  permanently 
established  themselves  as  a  nation,  and  gave  the  name  of 
Prancia,  or  France,  to  the  provinces  lying  between  the 
Rhine,  the  Weser,  the  Maine,  and  the  Elbe ;  but  about  the 
sixth  century  that  name  was  transferred  to  ancient  Gaul, 
when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks. 

THE  ALLEMANNL 

12.  The  Alleman'ni  were  another  confederation  of  Ger- 
man tribes,  which  took  its  name  from  including  a  great  va- 
riety of  nations.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that  the 
name  is  compounded  of  the  words  all  and  man  which  still 
continue  unchanged  in  our  language.     Their  territories  ex- 
tended between  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Main' 
they  rendered  themselves  formidable  to  the  Romans  by  th«-ir 
frequent  inroads  into  Gaul  and  Italy  during  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries. 

THE  SAXONS  AND  ANGLES. 

13.  The  Saxons  began  to  be  conspicuous  about  the 

of  the  second  century.  They  were  then  settled  beyond  the 
Elbe,  in  modern  Hnlstrin  ;  having  for  their  neighbours  the 
ANGLI,  or  ANGLES,  inhabiting  Sleswick.  These  nation* 
were  early  distinguished  as  pirates,  and  their  plundering 
expeditions  kept  the  shores  of  western  Europe  in  cor 
alarm.  Being  invited  by  the  Britons  to  assist  in  repelling 


384  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

the  invasions  of  the  Picts,  they  subdued  the  southern  part 
of  the  island,  which  has  ever  since  retained  the  name  of 
England,  from  its  conquerors  the  An'gli.  When  the 
Franks  penetrated  into  Gaul,  the  Saxons  passed  the  Elbe, 
and  seizing  on  the  vacated  territory,  gave  the  name  of  Sax- 
ony to  ancient  France. 

THE  HUNS. 

14.  The  Huns  were  the  most  ferocious  and  sanguinary 
of  the  barbarians.  They  seem  to  have  been  originally  Kal- 
muck or  Mongolian  Tartars,  and,  during  the  period  of  their 
supremacy,  seem  never  to  have  laid  aside  the  savage  cus- 
toms which  they  brought  from  their  native  deserts.  15.  Af- 
ter having  expelled  the  Goths  from  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
they  fell  upon  the  eastern  empire,  and  compelled  the  court 
of  Constantinople  to  pay  them  tribute.  They  then,  under 
the  guidance  of  Attila,  invaded  Italy,  and  after  devastating 
the  peninsula,  captured  and  plundered  Rome.  After  the 
death  of  Attila,  the  Huns  were  broken  up  into  a  number  of 
petty  states,  which  maintained  their  independence  until  the 
close  of  the  eighth  century,  when  they  were  subdued  by 
Charlemagne. 

THE  BURGUNDIANS. 

16.  The  Burgundians  were  originally  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  situated  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula.   They 
followed  nearly  the  track  of  the  Visigoths,  and  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  century  had  established  themselves  on 
the  Upper  Rhine  and  in  Switzerland.     On  the  dissolution 
of  the  empire,  they  seized  on  that  part  of  Gaul,  which  from 
them  retains  the  name  of  Burgundy. 

THE  LOMBARDS,  THE  GEPIDJS,  AND  THE  AVARS. 

17.  The  Lombards,  more  properly  called  Longo-bardi, 
from  the  length  of  their  beards,  are  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  a  branch  of  the  Sue'vi,  and  by  others  to  have  mi- 
grated from  Scandina'via.     They  joined  with  the  Avars,  a 
fierce  Asiatic  people,  in  attacking  the  Gep'idse,  then  in  pos- 
session of  that  part  of  Dacia  lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  but  who  are  supposed  to  have  come  thither  from 
some  more  northern  country.     The  Avars   and   Lombards 
triumphed,  but  the  former  soon  turned  their  arms  against 
their  allies,  and  compelled  them  to  seek  new  habitations. 
18.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  they  invaded 


THE    EMPIRE.  385 

Italy,  which  the  Eastern  emperors  had  just  before  wrested 
from  the  Turks,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  north- 
ern part,  which  has  since  borne  the  name  of  Lombard)-. 

THE  SLA'VI. 

19.  These  were  the  last  of  the  barbarian  hordes,  and  ar« 
not  mentioned  by  any  author  before  the  sixth  century.  Tln-y 
first  appeared  in  the  east  of  Europe,  and  spreading  them- 
selves over  the  central  provinces,  occupied  the  greater  part 
of  the  countries  that  now  constitute  the  dominions  of  Aus- 
tria.    The  Sla'vi  warred  chiefly  against  the  Eastern  empire, 
and  their  contest  with  the  Grecian  forces  on  the  Danube,  in 
the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  shook  the  throne  of  Con- 
itantinople.     The  VKNE'DI  and  the  AN'TES  were  tribes  of 
the  Slavi. 

THE  NORMANS. 

20.  The  piratical  inhabitants  of  Norway  and  Denmark 
were  called  by  the  Franks,  Normans,  or,  Men  of  the  North ; 
in  Ireland  they  were  named  Ostmen,  or,  Men  of  the  East. 
Their  depredations  began    to    attract  notice   early   in  the 
seventh  century,  but  did  not  become  formidable  before  the 
ninth  :  when  they  obtained  possession  of  that  part  of  France 
now  called  Normandy.     In  the  two   following  centuries 
they  wrested   England  from  the  Saxons,  and  established 
kingdoms  in  Sicily  and  southern  Italy. 

THE  BULGARIANS. 

21.  The  Bulgarians  were  of  Scythian  or  Tartar  origin, 
and  became  formidable  to  the  Eastern  empire  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventh  century.     In  the  beginning  of  the  ninth, 
Cruni'nus,  their  king,  advanced  to  the  gates  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  but  the  city  proving  too  strong,  he  seized  Adrianople, 
and  returned  home  loaded  with  booty.     The  successors  of 
Cruni'nus  did  not  inherit  his  abilities,  and  the  Bulgarian! 
soon  sunk  into  coiMSUcative  insignificance. 

THE  SARACENS  MOORS  AND  TURKS. 

22.  In  concluding  this  chapter,  it  may  be  proper  to  giv« 
some  account  of  the  subverters  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
of  their  iaruption  into  Europe.     The  Arabs,  called  i 
middle  agls  Saracens,  are  supposed  to  be  descended  from 
Ishmael,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  Hagar.     During  all  the 
changes  of  dynasties  and  empires  in  the  eastern  and  west«ru 

2  X 


HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

world,  the)  retained  their  independence,  though  almost  con 
stantly  at  war  with  the  surrounding  states.  "  Their  hand  was 
against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  was  against  them." 
In  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  Mohammed,  a  native 
of  Mecca,  descended  from  a  noble  family,  laid  claim  to  the 
title  of  a  prophet,  and  being  aided  by  a  renegade  Christian, 
formed  a  religious  system,  which,  after  encountering  great 
opposition,  was  finally  adopted  by  the  principal  tribes  of 
Arabia.  The  successors  of  Mohammed,  called  Caliphs,  re- 
solved to  propagate  the  new  religion  by  the  sword,  and  con- 
quered an  empire,  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Romans 
had  been.  The  entire  of  central  and  southern  Asia,  includ- 
ing Persia,  India,  and  the  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire 
owned  their  sway  ;  northern  Africa  was  soon  after  subdued, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  the  Saracenic 
Moors  established  their  dominion  in  Spain.  23.  It  is  pro- 
bable, even,  that  all  Europe  would  have  submitted  to  their 
yoke,  if  the  French  hero,  Charles  Martel,*  had  not  arrested 
their  victorious  career,  and  defeated  their  numerous  armies 
on  the  plains  of  Poitiers,  A.  D.  732.1 

24.  The  empire  of  the  Caliphs  soon  declined  from  its 
original  splendour,  and  its  ruin  finally  proceeded  from  the 
same  cause  that  produced  the  downfall  of  Rome,  the  em- 
ployment of  barbarian  mercenaries.  The  soldiers  levied 
by  the  Caliphs,  were  selected  from  the  Tartar  tribes  that  had 
embraced  the  religion  of  Mohamme'd ;  .they  were  called 
Turcomans  or  Turks,  from  Turkistan,  the  proper  name  of 
western  Tartary.  These  brave,  but  ferocious  warriors,  soon 
wrested  the  sceptre  from  the  feeble  caliphs,  and  completed 
the  conquest  of  western  Asia.  The  crusades  for  a  time  de- 
layed the  fate  of  the  Greek  empire,  but  finally  the  Turks 
crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  having  taken  Constantinople, 
(A.  D.  1453,)  established  their  cruel  despotism  over  the  fair- 
est portion  of  Europe. 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  How  were  the  barbarians  first  brought  into  the  Roman  empire  ? 

2.  When  did  the  first  great  movement  of  the  Northern  tribes  take 

place  ? 

3.  Where  did  the  Vandals  first  settle  1 

• 

*  See  Taylor's  History  of  France. 

•j-  Here    also  the  heroic  Black   Prince  took  John,  king  of  France, 
prisoner     See  Taylor's  France. 


TUB    EMPIRE.  387 

4.  From  whence  did  the  Alans  come  ? 

5.  In  what  countries  did  the  Vandals  establish  their  power  ! 

6.  Where  did  we  first  find  the  (Joths  wttlrd  ! 

7.  To  what  countries  did  the  Goths  remove  ? 

8.  How  long  did  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  continue! 

9.  What  branch  of  the  Goths  settled  in  Germany  ? 

10.  From  what  did  the  Franks  derive  their  name  1 

1 1.  Which  was  the  ancient,  and  which  the  modem  France  T  - 

12.  What  is  the  history  of  the  AMpmaiint? 

13.  In  what  countries  did  the  Saxons  and  Angles  settle! 

14.  Whence  did  the  Huns  come ' 

15.  How  far  did  their  ravages  extend  ? 

16.  What  territory  did  the  Burgundian*  seize* 

17.  How  did  the  alliance  between  the  Lombards  and  Avan  itjurr  the 

former  people  1 

18.  Where  was  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  established  ! 

19.  What  is  told  respecting  the  Slavi ! 

20.  Who  were  the  Normans ! 

21.  What  is  the  history  of  the  Bulgarians  ! 

22.  What  great  conquests  were  achieved  by  the  Arabs  under  Moham- 

med and  his  successors  1 

23.  By  whom  was  the  Saracenic  career  of  victory  checked  ! 

24.  How  was  the  empire  of  the  Turks  established ! 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE    PROGRESS   OF    CHRISTIANITY. 

1.  JUDEA  became  a  Roman  province  some  years  before 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  Jews,  who  had  hitherto 
been  conspicuous  for  their  attachment  to  their  native  land, 
were  induced,  by  the  spirit  of  trade,  to  spread  themselves 
over  the  empire.  2.  The  exclusive  nature  of  their  religion 
kept  them  in  a  marked  state  of  separation  from  their  fellnw 
subjects;  the  worshipper  of  Osi'ris  scrupled  not  to  otFer 
sacrifices  to  Jupiter ;  the  Persian,  the  Indian,  and  th- 
man,  bowed  before  the  Roman  altars;  but  the  sons  of  ' 
ham  refused  to  irive  tho  glory  of  their  God  to  graven  ii;, 
and  were  regarded  by  their  idolatrous  neighbours  at  first 
with  surprise,  and  afterwards  with  contempt.  3.  Tlie  ap- 
pearance  of  the  Messiah  in  Palestine,  and  the  m.r  mlou* 
circumstances  of  his  life,  death,  and  resurrection,  did  not  fill 
the  world  with  their  fame,  because  his  preaching  was  prin- 
cipally ad'hv.ssed  lo  his  countrymen,  the  lir.-t  oliject  of  his 
mission  bciny  "  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  LSI 


388  HISTORY   OF   ROME. 

4.  The  disciples,  after  their  Divine  Master  was  tnk:n 
from  tl.em,  proceeded  to  fulfil  his  last  commandments,  by 
preaching  the  gospel  "  to  every  nation,"  and  an  opportunity 
of  spreading  its  blessings  was  afforded  by  Jewish  syna- 
gogues having  been  previously  established  in  most  of  the 
great  cities  through  the  empire.  Independent  of  the  sus- 
taining providence  of  its  Almighty  Author,  there  were  many 
circumstances  that  facilitated  the  progress  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  final  triumph  of  Christianity.  5.  In  the  first 
place,  Paganism  had  lost  its  influence ;  men  secretly  laughed 
at  the  fabulous  legends  about  Jupiter  and  Rom'ulus,  the  sa- 
crifices had  become  idle  forms,  and  the  processions  a  useless 
mockery.  Philosophers  had  not  scrupled  to  cover  with 
ridicule  the  whole  system  of  Heathenism,  and  there  were 
not  a  few  who  professed  themselves  Atheists.  6.  Without 
some  system  of  religion  society  cunnot  exist ;  for  a  sanction 
stronger  than  human  laws  is  necessary  to  restrain  the  vio- 
lence of  passion  and  ardent  desires.  The  innate  feeling 
that  our  existence  is  not  dependent  on  our  mortal  frame, 
disposes  men  to  search  for  some  information  respecting  a 
future  state ;  the  heathen  system  was  at  once  obscure  and 
absurd  ;  the  philosophers  avowedly  spoke  from  conjecture  ; 
but  by  the  Gospel,  "  life  and  immortality  were  brought  to 
light."  7.  The  influence  of  a  purer  faith  was  discernible 
in  the  lives  and  actions  of  the  first  Christians ;  they  lived 
in  an  age  of  unparalleled  iniquity  and  debauchery,  yet  they 
kept  themselves  "  unspotted  from  the  world ;"  those  who 
were  once  conspicuous  for  violence,  licentiousness,  and 
crime,  became,  when  they  joined  the  new  sect,  humble, 
temperate,  chaste,  and  virtuous  ;  the  persons  who  witnessed 
such  instances  of  reformation  were  naturally  anxious  to 
learn  something  of  the  means  by  which  so  great  a  change 
had  been  effected.  8.  A  fourth  cause  was,  that  Christianity 
offered  the  blessings  of  salvation  to  men  of  every  class  ;  it 
was  its  most  marked  feature,  that  "  to  the  poor  the  gospel 
was  preached,"  and  the  wretch  who  dared  not  come  into 
the  pagan  temple,  because  he  had  no  rich  offering  to  lay 
upon  the  altar,  was  ready  to  obey  the  call  of  him  who  of- 
fered pardon  and  love  "  without  money  and  without  price." 

9.  In  the  course  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
churches  were  established  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  em- 
pire, but  more  especially  in  Asia  Minor ;  and  the  progress 
of  Christianity,  which  had  been  at  first  disregarded,  began 
to  attract  the  notice  of  the  ruling  powers.  Too  indolent 


Till  EMPIRE. 

to  investigate  the  claims  of  Christianity,  and  by  no  means 
pleased  with  a  system  which  condemned  their  vices,  the 
Rjman  rulers  viewed  the  rapid  progress  of  the  new  religion 
with  undisguised  alarm.  The  union  of  the  sacerdotal  and 
magisterial  character  in  the  Roman  policy,  added  personal 
interest  to  the  motives  that  urged  them  to  crush  this  rising 
sect;  and  the  relentless  Ne'ro  at  length  kindled  the  torch  of 
persecution.  10.  But  "  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  proved  the 
seed  of  the  Church ;"  the  constancy  with  which  they  sup 
ported  the  most  inhuman  tortures,  their  devotion  and  firm 
reliance  on  their  God  in  the  moments  of  mortal  agony,  in- 
creased the  number  of  converts  to  a  religion  which  could 
work  such  a  moral  miracle.  Persecution  also  united  the 
Christians  more  closely  together,  and  when  the  reign  of  ter- 
ror ended  with  the  death  of  Nero,  it  was  found  that  Chris- 
tianity had  derived  additional  strength  from  the  means  taken 
to  insure  its  destruction. 

11.  The  successive  persecutions  inflicted  by  the  policy 
or  the  bigotry  of  the  following  emperors  had  precisely  the 
same  results ;  and  at  length  the  Christians  had  acquired 
such  strength,  that  their  aid,  as  a  body,  became  a  matter  of 
importance  in  contests  for  the  empire. 

12.  The   mild   administration  of  Constantino,  while  ho 
was  only  prefect  of  Gaul,  the  protection  which  he  afforded 
to  the  Christians,  and  the  favour  that  he  showeJ  to  their 
religion,  induced  them  to  aid  him  with  all  their  might  in  hi* 
struggle  for  the  throne.     Brought  thus  into  contact  with  the 
professors  of  the  new  doctrine,  Constantino  was  induced  to 
examine  the  foundations  of  its  high  claims — perfect  convic- 
tion was  the  result,  and  on  his  accession  to  the  imperial 
purple,  the  Christian  church  was  legally  established.     13. 
During  the  reign  of  the  apostate  Julian,  Christianity  wan 
discouraged,  but  not  persecuted  ;  his  premature  death,  how 
ever,  removed   the  last  impediment  to   its  final    triumph, 
which  was  consummated  in  the  reign  of  the  great  Theodo'- 
sius.     14.  Under  that  emperor  the  last  vestiges  of  the  pagan 
worship  were  destroyed,  its  idols  overthrown,  its  altars  de- 
molished, and  its  temples  closed.     The  world  had  b< 

ripe  for  such  a  revolution,  as  the  temples  had  been  long 
before  almost  universally  abandoned. 

15.   Since  that  period  Christianity  has  prevailed  in  Eu- 
rope, and  funned  the  great  bond  of  the  social  happiness  and 
the  great  source  of  the  intellectual  eminence  enjoyed  in  thai 
quarter  of  the  globe.     Let  us  hope  that  the  exertion* 
2  K  2 


390  HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

made  to  diffuse  its  blessings  over  the  benighted  portions  of 
the  earth  will  prove  successful,  and  that  "  peace  and  happi- 
ness, truth  and  justice,  religion  and  piety"  will  prevail  from 
pole  to  pole 


Questions  for  Examination. 

1.  What  was  the  state  of  the  Jews  at  thf  toming  of  Christ! 

2.  How  were  the  Jews  preserved  separate  from  other  natior/s  ? 

3.  What  probable  cause  may  be  assigned  for  the  neglect  of  the  Chris- 

tian miracles  1 

4.  How  did  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  afford  an  opportunity  for  the 

propagation  of  Christianity  ? 

5.  What   was   the   state   of  paganism  when   Christianity  was  first 

preached  1 

6.  What  great  mystery  is  brought  to  light  by  the  gospel  1 

7.  How  did  the  lives  of  the  first  Christians  contribute  to  the  rapid 

progress  of  Christianity  ? 

8.  To  what  class  of  people  was  the  gospel  more  particularly  addressed? 

9.  What  induced  the  rulers  of  the  Roman  empire  to  persecute  Chris- 

tianity 1 

10.  Was  Christianity  crushed  by  persecution  1 

11.  What  proves  the  great  strength  early  acquired  by  Christians? 

12.  By  whom  was  Christianity  legally  established  1 

13.  Under  whose  government  did  it  receive  a  slight  check? 
H.  "When  were  the  last  vestiges  of  paganism  abolished? 

15.  What  have  been  the  political  effects  of  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity ? 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


MM 

(Supposed)  Pelasgic  migration  to  Italy 14 

1 184     (Supposed)  Arrival  of  ^Gneas  in  Latium 19.  6:» 

753     (Supposed)  foundation  of  the  city  of  Rome S3.  65 

750     Union  of  the  Romans  and  Sabines 69 

716     Death  of  Romulus 70 

714     Virtuous  Administration  of  Numa 71 

6?  1     Accession  of  Tullus  Hostilius 73 

665     Duel  between  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii — Destruction  of 

Alba ih. 

639     Accession  of  A ncus  Martins 75 

gjg  C Tarquinius  Priscus 77 

£  The  Augurs  acquire  importance  in  the  state 78 

C  Death  of  Tarquinius  Priscus 79 

578  <  Accession  of  Servius  Tullius 80 

(  The  establishment  of  the  Centuries 32.  80 

C  Murder  of  Servius  Tullius 82 

534  <  Accession  of  Tarquinius  Super  bus 83 

(_  Gabii  taken  by  stratagem 64 

-0»  C  Expulsion  of  Tarquinius  Superbu* 87 

I  Establishment  of  Consuls 88 

KAQ  5  Conspiracy  for  the  restoration  of  the  Tarquinii ih. 

Jtt  I  Death  of  Brutus 89 

507     War  with  Porsenna 90 

498     Lartius  the  first  Dictator  created 93 

.„_  C  The  Human  populace  retire  to  MODS  Sacer 94 

f  Tribunes  of  the  people  appointed 35    95 

C  Exile  of  Coriolanus 97 

487s  Rome  besiegi-d  by  Coriolanus 98 

CHis  retreit  and  death 100 

484     Condemnation  and  death  of  Caasiui 

459     First  Dictatorship  of  Cincinnatus 1"! 

457     Second      ditto 

454     The  Romans  semi  to  Athens  for  Solon's  lawn 35 

451     The  laws  of  the  Twelve  Table*— The  Decemviri H'7 

449     The  expulsion  of  the  Decemviri 

443     Military  Tribunes  chosen  instead  of  Consuls 

442     The  Censorship  instituted 

439     Maeiius  murdered  by  Ahala 

406     The  si.  0   <>t'  \Vii  begun II* 

396     Veii  taken  by  Cnmillus 120 

391      The  (.'auN  itn.i.Ie  Italv 1M 

5  The  battle  of  A  Ilia.     Rome  sacked  by  ihe  Gaols 

"  ?  The  C  J.uil.  .lefeatod  l.y  r'amUlui 

883    Manlius  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of  ttraun 129 

891 


392  CHRONOLOGICAL    INDEX. 

B.C.  PAGB 

361     Curtius  devotes  himself  in  the  Forum 129 

342     Beginning  of  the  Samnite  war 131 

ooq  $  Manlius  puts  his  son  to  death  for  disobedience 133 

£Deci  us  devotes  himself  for  his  country 134 

320     A  Roman  army  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Samnites  in 

the  Caudine  Forks 136 

280     Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  invades  Italy 137 

272     finally  defeated  by  Curius  Dentatus 142 

270     Tarentum  surrendered  to  the  Romans 143 

264     Commencement  of  the  first  Punic  war 144 

260     The  Carthaginian  fleet  defeated  by  Duilius 145 

256     Regulus  defeated  by  Xantippus 147 

252     Regulus  sent  to  negociate  peace.     His  death 148 

241     End  of  the  first  Punic  war 150 

r~The  temple  of  Janus  shut,  and  Rome  at  peace,  for  the 

234  <      first  time  since  the  death  of  Numa ib. 

(_Literature  cultivated  at  Rome 151 

229     War  with  the  Illyrians ib. 

(""The  Gauls  invade  Italy  a  second  time ib. 

225  < are  defeated  by  Marcellus,  who  gains  the 

C.     spolia  opima 1 52 

(The  second  Punic  war  begins ib. 

9 .  QJ  Hannibal  invades  Italy 153 

•8i  Battle  of  the  Ticenus 154 

(_ of  the  Trebia ib, 

217     of  the  lake  Thrasymene 155 

216     of  Cannffi 157 

214     The  Romans  begin  an  auxiliary  war  against  Philip  of 

Macedon 163 

Syracuse  taken  by  Marcellus 160 

Asdrubal  defeated  and  slain ib. 

Battle  of  Zama  and  end  of  the  second  Punic  war 161 

Philip  conquered  by  the  Romans 164 

The  Romans  wage  war  against  Antiochus ib. 

Death  of  Hannibal 1 65 

Commencement  of  the  second  Macedonian  war ib. 

Macedon  became  a  Roman  province 166 

The  third  Punic  war  begins ib. 

Carthage  destroyed  by  Scipio,  and  Corinth  by   Mu- 

nimius 167 

132     Sedition  of  Tiberius  Gracchus 168 

126     Revolt  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily 170 

122     Seditions  of  Caius  Gracchus ib. 

121     Murder  of  Caius  Gracchus.  Persecution  of  the  popular 

party 173 

111     The  Jugurthine  war  begins,  and  lasts  five  years 176 

91     The  social  war  begins,  and  lasts  three  years 179 

89     The  Mithridatic  war  begins,  and  lasts  twenty-six  years  ib. 

88     The  civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sylla ib. 

Cruelties  of  Marius 182 


36  "*  Death  of  Marius. . , 


CHRONOLOGICAL    INDEX.  393 

MM 

82     Sylla  created  dictator 184 

78     DeathofSylla 185 

73     The  insurrection  of  the  slaves  under  Spartacus. .  .note,        ib. 

66     Mithridates  conquered  by  Pompey 187 

63     Catiline's  conspiracy  detected 188 

60     The  first  Triumvirate.     Cesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus.       191 
65     Cesar  invades  Britain 192 

63  Crassus  slain  in  Parthia 194 

60  Civil  war  between  Cesar  and  Pompey 195 

48$  The  battle  of  Pharsalia 206 

£  Death  of  Pompey 21 1 

47     Alexandria  taken  by  Cesar 219 

,-  C  The  war  in  Africa 222 

i  Death  of  Cato 223 

,,  C  The  war  in  Spain 224 

£  The  battle  of  Munda ib. 

44     Cesar  murdered  in  the  senate-house 228 

C  Formation  of  the  second  Triumvirate — Antony,  Octa- 
43  <      vius  (Augustus)  and  Lepidus 231 

CThe  Proscription.     The  murder  of  Cicero 232 

42  The  battle  of  Philippi 237 

32  Octavius  (Augustus,)  and  Antony  prepare  for  war  ...      247 
31     The  battle  of  Actium 249 

f"  The  death  of  Antony 255 

30  <  Alexandria  surrendered 366 

C  Death  of  Cleopatra 

27     The  title  of  Augustus  given  to  Octavius 263 

A.D.  

4    Birth  of  Jisui  CHRIST  (four  years  before  the  vulgar 

era) 2b9 

14     Death  of  Augustus  

19     Death  of  Gcrmanicus  by  poison *7J 

26     The  retreat  of  Tiberius  to  Caprea 

31  Disgrace  and  downfall  of  Sejanus 

33  The  Crucifixion 2?7 

37     The  Accession  of  Caligula 

41     Caligula  murdered  by  Cherca 

43  Claudius  invades  Britain 

61  Caractacus  carried  captive  to  Rome 

64  Nero  succeeds  Claudius 

69     Nero  murders  his  mother  . . . .  ~. 

64  First  general  persecution  of  the  Christian*,.. 

65  Seneca,  Lucan,  and  others,  executed  for  conspiracy 

68  Suicide  of  Nero.     Accession  jf  Galba 

C  Death  of  Galba 

69  <  1).  feat  and  death  of  Otho 

(  D-r.-ut  and  d.-aih  of  VitflliuB.  Accession  of  Vetpwian 

70  Siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem 

'  Death  of  VemuUn.     Accession  of  Titu* 

Eruption  of  Vesuvius:  destruction  of  Herculancum. . 
8 1     Death  of  Titus.     .*  cccs«ion  of  Domitian 


394  CHRONOLOGICAL^  INDEX. 

A.  D. 

88     The  Dacian  war 308 

9g  C  Assassination  of  Domitian. 311 

£  Accession  of  Nerva 313 

98     Death  of  Nerva.     Accession  of  Trajan 314 

107     Third  general  persecution  of  the  Christians 317 

117     Death  of  Trajan.     Accession  of  Adrian 318 

121     A  wall  to  restrain  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scois 

erected  in  Britain  by  Adrian 319 

131     Great  rebellion  of  the  Jews 320 

138     Death  of  Adrian.    Accession  of  Antoninus  Pius. . .  .322,  323 

161  Accession  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Lucius  Verus  ....  324 

162  The  Parthian  war ,.  ib. 

169     The  war  with  the  Marcomanni 327 

180  5  -Death  °f  Marcus  Aurelius 328 

(_  Accession  of  Commodus 329 

192  5  Commodus  murdered  by  Marcia  and  Lsetus 330 

£  Assassination  of  Pertinax 331 

200  5  >^'^ie  •'^oman  empire  offered  for  sale    ib. 

£  Scverus  subdues  the  Parthians 334 

211     Death  of  Severus  at  York.  Accession  of  Caracalla  and 

Geta 335 

217  Assassination  of  Caracalla 336 

218  Accession  of  Heliogabal us 337 

222  ^  ^s  m"lscrab'e  death ib. 

£  Accession  of  Alexander  Severus 338 

235  Death  of  Alexander.     Maximin  elected  emperor 339 

236  Assassination  of  Maximin , 340 

238     Accession  of  Gordian 7  _  . 

244     His  murder  by  Philip 5 

248     Philip  killed  by  his  soldiers  :  succeeded  by  Decius. . . .  342 

251     Decius  slain  in  an  ambuscade:  succeeded  by  Gallus. .  ib. 

254     Death  of  Gallus :  a  disputed  succession 343 

270     Accession  of  Aurelian 344 

275     Brief  reign  of  Tacitus 345 

282     Assassination  of  the  emperor  Probus ib. 

284     Accession  of  Dioclesian 347 

304     The  reign  of  Constantius  and  Galerius 348 

312     Victory  of  Constantino  over  Maxentius 349 

J19     Favour  showed  to  the  Christians 350 

324  Defeat  of  Licinius 351 

325  Legal  establishment  of  Christianity 351  389 

328     The  seat  of  government  removed  from  Rome  to  Byzan- 
tium, which  city  from  thenceforward  takes  the  name 

of  Constantinople,  from  the  emperor  Constantino . . .  352 
C  Death   of  Constantine,   and   division  of  the  empire 

337  <      among  his  sons 353 

£  Destruction  of  the  Flavian  Family 355 

338  War  between  Constantius  and  Sapor 356 

340     Constantine  the  younger  defeated   and  slain  by   his 

brother  Constans 357 

350     Constans  killed  by  Magnentius ib. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    INDEX. 


393 


A.  D.                                                                                 .  i   * 

351     Magnen tius    totally    defeated    at   the    fatal    'v»ttle   of 

Mursa 358 

354    Gallas  put  to  death  by  Constantius 369 

360  The  civil  war  between  Constantiui  and  Julian  prevent- 
ed by  the  death  of  the  former 360 

362  Julian's  attempt  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  de- 

feated    361 

363  Death  of  Julian  in  the  Persian  war.     Brief  reign  of 

Jovi&n 362 

364  The  empire  divided  between  Valentinian  and  Yalens. .  363 
„„-  C  The  Goths  permitted  to  settle  in  Thrace 365,  382 

'     (_  First  appearance  of  the  Huns  in  Europe 365 

373     The  emperor  Valeria  defeated  bj  the  Goths  at  Adriano- 

ple ib. 

Theodosius  becomes  emperor  of  the  East 866 

The  usurper  Maximus  defeated  and  slain 367 

Reunion  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires,  under 

Theodosius 368 

395      Death  ni'  'IT..'".'. -^ius.  :i:i,!  f.n.J  s.'j.arat;..;;  tf\  »  ]}.t-l- 

•tern  and  Western  empires ib. 

398     Revolt  of  Gildo  in  Africa 370 

405  Stilicho  obtains  two  victories  over  the  Goths 371 

406  The  Vandals  and  Alans  settle  in  Gaul %& . . . .  372,  382 

408     Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths,  besieges  Rome 374 

410     Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Goths 375 

412     Beginning  of  the  Vandal  kingdom  in  Spain 382 

415     Commencement  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths. .  .375,  382 

423     Death  of  Honorius.     Accession  of  Valentinian 375 

430     The  Vandals  invited  to  Africa  by  count  Boniface.  .  .376, 381 
447     The  Huns  under  the  guidance  of  Attila,  ravage  Eu- 
rope   376 

449  The  Britons,  deserted  by  the  Romans,  invite  the  Sax- 
ons and  Angles  to  their  assistance 383 

455  Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  Genicric,  the  king  of  the 

African  Vandals 377 

476  Augustulus,  the  last  emperor  of  the  Weat  depoaod.  Odo- 

acer  takes  the  title  of  king  of  Italy 

1453  Subversion  of  the  Eastern  empire 3SO,  396 


END 


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"—•••"•^^•••••l  III   I  I  II  II 

A     000  897  831     4 


